e. a specific quantitative phenotype. The mice are PLX4032 manufacturer usually backcrossed a large number of generations onto a specific strain (usually C57Bl/6) and, as controls, the WT of the same strain is most often used. These types of experiments are, however, subject

to many pitfalls and there are no clear standard rules regarding how to perform and report them. As a result, incorrect conclusions may be drawn, which delays the discovery of the true effects. These problems have, over the years, been debated mainly based on examples where the targeted genes are located within loci that have been positioned in the genome by genetic mapping experiments, but the effect is subsequently found to be mediated by a gene(s) other than the one originally suspected in the locus (see 1–5). Mapping of genes controlling disease or immunological traits allows the identification of the chromosomal region containing the genetic polymorphism Daporinad ic50 of importance and subsequently, after great effort, the exact positioning

of the affected gene(s) can also be determined. This has revealed a very complex pattern of numerous polymorphisms that are spread over the genome of commonly used inbred strains. Isolation of such loci, i.e. introducing the loci to a new genetic background, may produce both stronger and different effects of the gene as has been shown using congenic strains containing defined chromosomal regions of a different origin. It has, for example, been reported that crosses of 129 and C57Bl/6 (B6) strains results in mice that spontaneously display a lupus type of systemic autoimmunity 3. Mapping the 129×B6 crosses showed that the autoimmune response is controlled by numerous loci. Thus, in mice Parvulin with a targeted gene within a linked 129 fragment backcrossed onto B6 there is a considerable risk that the targeted gene is influenced

by the surrounding 129 genes when autoimmunity is analysed. In fact, the authors demonstrate that a 129-derived congenic fragment of chromosome 1 containing both apcs and FcR genes has effects on lupus autoimmunity by itself, questioning the data using mice with knockout genes in the same 129-derived region 3. In another example, it could be shown that an unknown polymorphic gene, rather than the targeted interferon receptor deficiency, explained diabetes resistance 5. A similar explanation was provided for the effects of osteopontin knockout on autoimmune disease, which are found to vary depending on the number of backcrosses 4. The precise identification of mutations may change our understanding of the role of the gene, as previously determined by targeted deletions, as is the case with the contrasting effects of Ncf1 on autoimmune diseases 6–8. To have a conclusive experiment that analyzes gene modifications, it is necessary that only the gene in question is compared.

Winkelmayer et al. further looked at the effect of late referral on access to transplantation.75 A cohort of 3014 incident patients on RRT was studied. Due to the old age of this population, only 35 received a kidney transplant.

Thirty-two of these were matched with 197 controls with similar comorbidity and demographic data. Late referral (<90 days) in this retrospective case–control study was associated with a significant reduction in transplantation (OR 0.22, 95% CI: 0.05–0.97). Socioeconomic status and comorbidity were also significantly associated BGB324 price with a reduced rate of transplantation. Finally, Wu et al. analysed 52 type 2 diabetic patients commencing predialysis at his institution PF-562271 in Taiwan over a 2-year period.76 Late referral was defined as less than 6 months before starting dialysis (36 patients) versus 16 early referrals. Survival (extended out to 5 years) was better in the early referral group (RR 0.42, 95% CI: 0.152–0.666) and was independent of age, glycaemic control and residual renal function. Most data come from retrospective studies. Prospective studies are limited and RCT unlikely due to logistic and ethical concerns. A systemic review demonstrates that late referral leads to worse patient outcomes (mortality and increased duration of hospitalization). Early referral provides the opportunity for optimal care by a nephrologist-led multidisciplinary team. Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative:

In general patients with eGFR <30 should be referred, or earlier if the ‘clinical action plan’ cannot be carried out. UK Renal Association: GFR should be calculated using the four-variable Modification of Diet in Renal Disease equation. A GFR of <15 merits immediate referral, 15–29 urgent referral and 30–59 routine referral. Patients with stage IV and V kidney disease should be discussed with a nephrologist. Canadian Society of Nephrology: Measure or calculate creatinine clearance for patients with a serum creatinine Dichloromethane dehalogenase of >200 µmol/L. Measure creatinine clearance by 24-hour urine collection with a concurrent serum creatinine

or calculate it using the Cockcroft–Gault formula. Refer patients with a creatinine clearance of <30 mL/min to a nephrologist for opinion regarding management of renal failure. European Best Practice Guidelines: No recommendation. International Guidelines: No recommendation. Estimated GFR at the time of referral should be correlated with the time interval between referral and initiation of dialysis to suggest an optimal eGFR range to allow adequate predialysis management. Grant Luxton has no relevant financial affiliations that would cause a conflict of interest according to the conflict of interest statement set down by CARI. "
“Aim:  Proliferation signal inhibitors (PSI) have demonstrated efficacy in prevention and treatment in an animal model of lupus nephritis (LN) but there are no data regarding the use of PSI in human LN.

5A and Supporting Information Fig. 10A). Moreover, both MO- and PMN-MDSCs at least partially prevent the CD62L downregulation normally seen upon CD8+ T-cell activation (Fig. 5B(i) and Supporting Information Fig. 11B(i)). Remarkably, addition of l-NMMA to WT MO-MDSCs or the use of IFN-γR−/− or iNOS−/− MO-MDSCs even further augmented CD62L Cabozantinib mw expression, while SNAP strongly lowered CD62L levels (Fig. 5B(i) and Supporting Information Fig. 11B(i)). These data demonstrate that MO-MDSCs are intrinsically

strong inhibitors of activation-induced CD62L downregulation, a feature that is somewhat tempered by their high secretion of the CD62L-lowering molecule NO. PMN-MDSCs, which do not produce NO, prevent CD62L downregulation to the same extent as MO-MDSCs. Other important adhesion molecules

on activated CD8+ T cells are the hyaluronic acid MK-2206 order (HA) receptor CD44, which mediates extravasation of activated T cells from blood to inflamed tissues [28], and CD162 (also known as PSGL-1), which functions as ligand for P- and E-selectin and contributes to T-cell rolling and entry into inflammatory sites [29]. While PMN-MDSCs do not affect CD44 expression, MO-MDSCs strongly inhibit its surface expression level (Fig. 5B(ii) and Supporting Information Fig. 11B(ii)). This is functionally relevant, since MO-MDSC-treated, but not PMN-MDSC-treated, CD8+ T cells

show significantly reduced adhesion to HA (Fig. 5D). NO is ID-8 partly responsible for this, as illustrated by a partial CD44 recovery upon addition of l-NMMA or the use of IFN-γR−/− or iNOS−/− MO-MDSCs. SNAP does not lower CD44 to the same extent as MO-MDSCs, corroborating the existence of other regulatory mechanisms (Fig. 5B(ii)). For CD162, MO-MDSCs suppress its surface expression in an entirely NO-dependent fashion, while PMN-MDSCs actually increase the expression of this molecule (Fig. 5B(iii)). These data are confirmed by labeling of the CD8+ T cells with a P-selectin-IgG construct (Fig. 5C). Moreover, MO-MDSC-treated T cells adhere less efficiently, while PMN-MDSC-treated cells increase their retention on coated P-selectin (Fig. 5D). Hence, also at the level of activation/adhesion marker expression, splenic MDSC effects are complex and can be either inhibitory or stimulatory. Persistent TCR stimulation, together with IL-2 signals, can promote apoptosis of T cells, mainly through Fas-FasL (CD95-CD95L) interactions [6]. We therefore investigated whether splenic MDSC subsets are able to regulate Fas-mediated cell death in CD8+ T cells. PMN-MDSCs did not modify Fas expression, while MO-MDSCs firmly increased its expression after 42 h (Fig. 6A and Supporting Information Fig. 12). In the absence of NO (l-NMMA, IFN-γR−/−, iNOS−/– MO-MDSCs), Fas is not induced.

These included the British Society for Immunology Clinical Immunology and Allergy Section (BSI-CIAS), the British Association of Allergy and Clinical Immunology (BSACI), the British Association of Dermatologists (Audit Group) and the Immunology Consultants Travellers Group. The Excel template was then sent from there to individual clinicians in centres across the United Kingdom. Data on current patients were collected for the previous 12 months by clinicians with

information from the patient, medical notes and pathology results systems. Anonymized data sets gathered in the period 2010–12 were returned to the Immunology Department in Cardiff for collation and analysis. Summary statistics (summed values, means,

medians, standard error RGFP966 purchase of the mean, percentages overall and for disease and group subsets where appropriate) were calculated for quantitative and qualitative variables using Microsoft Excel and Graphpad Prism version 6·0 and rounded to whole numbers or a single decimal place. Data were returned from 14 centres (Fig. 2) [Birmingham, Brighton and Sussex, Cardiff, Glasgow, Guildford, Liverpool, London, Enzalutamide solubility dmso Manchester (adult), Manchester (paediatrics), Newcastle, Oxford, Preston, Salford and Swansea] covering mainly adults and some children. Types 1 and II HAE diagnoses were made based on biochemical and functional levels of C1INH. Type III angioedema diagnoses were confirmed by sequencing of factor XII (FXII), an assay which became available in the United Kingdom only towards the latter part of data collection. Type III, now known as ‘hereditary angioedema with normal C1 inhibitor’, has two subgroups – with or without FXII mutations. Three female patients with type III HAE were confirmed on sequencing; their ages were 28, 30 and 53 years. Diagnoses categorized as ‘other’ represent cases which were not fully worked-up or were being reinvestigated. A total selleck chemical of 376 patients were identified: 59% females and 41% males. There was a smaller percentage

of type II HAE (6%) (Fig. 3) diagnoses compared to 15% in other reports [1]. Data collected on diagnostic delay in 249 patients reveal a huge variation in time from onset of symptoms to diagnosis (Fig. 4). A minority of patients (3%) have negative values, corresponding to a diagnosis being made prior to the onset of symptoms, due usually to a diagnosis being made in another family member. Excluding these cases, the average time to diagnosis was 10 years for the group as a whole, with a median of 5 years. Considerable variation in diagnostic delay was observed between the different diagnostic categories when these were analysed separately; type I HAE (10 years), type II HAE (18 years) and AAE (5 years). Diagnostic delay in children was inevitably shorter at 2 years. However, the full distribution of diagnostic delays is highly skewed.

Tumor volume, histopathology and apoptosis were assessed. Presence of SNAP-25 protein, the molecular target of onobotulinumtoxinA, was studied in both cell lines by Western blot analysis. Results: OnobotulinumtoxinA did not significantly affect cell proliferation or apoptosis in LNCaP and PC3 cells. There was no significant selleck chemical difference in tumor size and histopathological findings between the experimental and control groups. There was no detectable SNAP-25 protein in both cell lines. Conclusion:

OnobotulinumtoxinA does not affect the growth of LNCaP or PC3 cells in vitro and in vivo or produce significant anti-tumor effects. Intraprostatic BTX injection for BPH might not affect the growth of prostate cancer. “
“Objective: This study examined the relationship between bothersome symptoms of nocturia and erectile function. Methods: Subjects comprised patients with lower urinary tract symptoms (LUTS) suggestive of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Patients were prospectively followed on treatment with the alpha-1 blocker

naftopidil for 8 weeks. Patient backgrounds and efficacy of Sunitinib clinical trial naftopidil associated with LUTS and sexual activity were evaluated. Results: The percentage of patients who identified nocturia as the most bothersome symptom was 30.2% (n = 135), representing the highest percentage among International Prostate Symptom Score (IPSS) items. The number of patients with nocturia as the most bothersome symptom plateaued at an IPSS for nocturia of two or three points. In contrast, the number of patients with slow stream as the most bothersome symptom increased with symptom

severity according to IPSS for slow stream. Logistic regression analysis on association between nocturia and erectile function confirmed that the odds ratio was 1.41 (P < 0.05). Naftopidil showed excellent efficacy related to male LUTS, but International Index of Erectile Function 5 (IIEF5) total score was almost unchanged. Among patients with nocturia improved by naftopidil, IIEF5 total score was significantly Niclosamide changed in the group with IPSS nocturia score ≤1 as compared to the group with IPSS nocturia score ≥2 per night (P = 0.038). Conclusion: Nocturia the most bothersome symptom correlated with aging. Nocturia could associate erectile dysfunction, and keeping the frequency of nocturia at ≤1 episode might be meaningful for maintaining quality of life in elderly men. “
“Functional and urodynamic (UDS) outcomes of W-configured ileal orthotopic neobladder (ONB) with extramural serosa-lined tunnel uretero-ileal anastomosis are presented Consecutive 17 patients undergoing ONB during December 2009 to March 2011 were enrolled. Of these 15 men (bladder cancer 14, tuberculosis 1) with mean age 52.7 ± 11.3 years completed the follow-up. Pouch-related quality of life (PQOL) was assessed using a published questionnaire.

2 ± 49.7 vs 167.4 ± 48.0 ng/mL; p:0.01), with a reduction ratio of 73 ± 14%. At baseline, direct and independent correlations this website were found between NGAL and, respectively, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (β = 0.34; P = 0.03) and spKt/V (β = 0.35; P = 0.02). The findings showed that HD patients have

chronically increased levels of circulating NGAL. However, with a single HD session, a marked reduction was achieved in circulating NGAL values, probably as a result of an important dialytic removal, similar to that observed for other cytokines. Finally, the direct independent correlation found between NGAL and spKt/V raises the question of whether, in the future, NGAL may also become a useful tool in predicting the adequacy of dialysis and in guiding the management of dialysis prescriptions. “
“A possible association between the transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) T869C gene polymorphism and the risk of developing diabetic nephropathy (DN) remains unclear. This investigation was performed to assess if an association between the TGF-β1 T869C gene polymorphism and DN risk exists by using meta-analysis to combine comparable studies, thereby increasing sample size and statistical significance, and to identify patterns in various studies. The association reports were identified from PubMed, Cochrane Library, and CBM-disc (China Biological Medicine Database) on 1 May 2013, and eligible studies were recruited and synthesized. Fifty reports were recruited

into this meta-analysis for the association of the TGF-β1 T869C gene polymorphism with DN risk. The TT genotype in the overall population was shown to be associated with DN risk (odds selleck inhibitor ratio (OR) = 0.74, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.56–0.98, P = 0.04). In the sub-group analysis, CC genotype was associated with DN risk in Asians, Caucasians, and Africans. However, the sample size for Caucasians and Africans was relatively small. Furthermore, T allele was distinctly associated with the risk of developing DN in the Asian population (OR = 0.76, 95% CI: 0.62–0.92, P = 0.005). The TT genotype of TGF-β1 T869C in the overall population was associated with DN risk, whereas the CC genotype and T allele were distinctly

associated with DN risk in the Asian population. Nonetheless, additional studies are required to firmly establish a correlation between the aforementioned Thiamine-diphosphate kinase polymorphism and DN risk. “
“Aim: Streptococcus pneumoniae-associated haemolytic uraemic syndrome (SP-HUS) is a major concern of paediatric acute renal failure in Taiwan; it leads to significant morbidity and mortality during the acute phase and to long-term morbidity after an acute episode. Methods:  Twenty children diagnosed with HUS between 1 May 1995, and 31 December 2008 was enrolled. Clinical variables related to laboratory data, organ involved, and outcomes were examined between patients with and without SP-HUS. Results:  Thirteen of the 20 (13/20, 65%) patients required dialysis, nine (9/20, 45.

84, 95% CI 0.73∼0.95). When clinical variables were combined with genes, the diagnostic accuracy increased 0.96 (95% CI 0.91∼1.00) in the five gene set and 0.94 (95% CI 0.89∼1.00) in the two gene set. Conclusion: These results support the validity of 5 gene-set for the prediction of AR in Asian adult kidney transplant recipients and suggest the promising role of the peripheral blood gene test in the diagnosis of AR in kidney transplantation. LIM LI HAN, NG KOK PENG, LIM SOO KUN, TAN LI PING, KENG TEE CHAU, CHONG YIP BOON, KONG WAI YEW Division of Nephrology, Department of Medicine, University Malaya Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Introduction: Several studies have consistently shown that subclinical

rejection (SCR) is associated with chronic tubulointerstitial damage, subsequent renal dysfunction and reduced graft survival. This study 17-AAG investigated whether serum neutrophil gelatinase–associated lipocalin (NGAL) can detect SCR found in protocol biopsies allowing for a less invasive screening procedure. Methods: In this pilot study from June of 2012 to December of 2013, a total of 66 protocol biopsies were taken from patients with serum

creatinine not exceeding 130 μmol/L. At the similar setting, serum NGAL was measured. We instituted protocol biopsies in routine practice at 1, 3, 6 and 12 months, and yearly. We defined SCR as acute rejection identified from a biopsy specimen without concurrent functional deterioration (a serum creatinine not exceeding 20% of baseline values). Results: Six

rigidly defined groups (“Normal histology” RG-7388 [n = 30], “Borderline SCR” [as Banff i1 and t1] [n = 15], “Acute SCR” [as Banff i2 and t2 or worse] [n = 2], “Antibody-mediated SCR” [n = 1], “Both SPTLC1 cellular and antibody-mediated SCR” [n = 3], and “Other histologic changes” [n = 15]) were compared for differences in serum NGAL, presented in Table 1. Compared with the “Normal histology” group, all except for “Acute SCR,” had a higher mean of serum NGAL (“Borderline SCR,” P < 0.001, “Both cellular and antibody-mediated SCR,” P = 0.307, “Other histologic changes,” P < 0.001). Conclusion: Serum NGAL could possibly allow for a clear differentiation between stable transplants with normal histology and stable transplants with important histologic changes apart from subclinical rejection. Therefore, serum NGAL could be an alternative tool to screen for subclinical rejection in situation which protocol biopsy is not possible. Large-scale, multicenter, prospective trials of serum NGAL are required to assess fully its place in the detection of subclinical rejection in stable transplant patients. WU KENNETH, S1, COXALL OWEN2 1Damai Specialist Hospital; 2University of Oxford, UK Introduction: Renal transplant immunosuppressive agents continue to generate much interest. Alemtuzumab(campath), a humanized anti CD 52 antibody has been reported by some centres as a promising agent apart from it being cost effective.

Secondary immune responses to A. ceylanicum in immune hamsters are known to be directed primarily

at the invasive larvae and possibly developing L4 stages (19), reducing worm burdens of these developmental stages rapidly within 2–3 days of re-infection, although usually some worms manage to complete development and then survive for many weeks. Despite giving a low-level challenge in the current experiment, there was a significant reduction in worm burdens in the immunized-challenged animals (Group 5, primary + secondary infections), compared with the challenge controls (Group 4), that was already apparent on day 10 p.c. as reported previously (19), but no evidence of any further significant loss over the following 3 weeks of the worms that had managed to establish successfully and survived the critical early see more phase of development. And this despite continuing erosion of villus height, hypertrophy of crypt depth, increased mucosal mitotic activity, greatly enhanced goblet cell and eosinophil density APO866 and increased Paneth cell counts. Surprisingly, compared with primary infections, mast cell counts remained unimpressive during secondary infections in immune animals (Figure 3), although they were raised marginally relative to naïve

animals in the third week after challenge. This was unexpected and it contrasts with earlier published data (19) in which an increase in mast cells Nintedanib order was detected in immune-challenged animals during the first 3 weeks post-challenge. However, in that experiment heavier challenge doses were used, and it is possible that with lower doses of larvae, as used here, too few worms established to generate and sustain a more intense mast cell response, such as that seen in animals harbouring

heavier adult worm burdens, as in Group 2, the continuous primary infection group. Nevertheless, we feel that this is unlikely given the vigorous goblet cell and eosinophil responses. It may simply be that in this particular experimental setting, the mast cell response was eclipsed by the vigour of the other cellular responses, which were amongst the most intense that we have ever observed in this host–parasite system. Equally it is possible that the mast cells in the immune-challenged animals were highly reactive and degranulating rapidly in the mucosa, before they could be fixed and quantified, as the method employed here was based on the specific staining of mast cell inclusions. This idea can be tested by assessing plasma and tissue levels of mast cell proteases, but unlike in mice and rats, no comparable antibody capture-based assays are available yet for hamster mucosal mast cell proteases.

Despite the increased sensitivity of current antibody detection methods significant deficiencies remain and herein we present such a case. A 62-year-old man with end-stage renal failure secondary to glomerulonephritis commenced peritoneal dialysis in 2008 following the failure of his primary deceased donor renal transplant due to chronic allograft nephropathy. His relevant comorbidities click here included: ischaemic heart disease with coronary artery bypass grafts, peripheral vascular disease, a thrombosed arteriovenous fistula, dyslipidaemia and numerous skin cancers which

had been treated and cured. In June 2011 he received an offer of a T-cell CDC crossmatch-negative deceased donor renal transplant. The donor was mismatched at three of six HLA loci and a DSAb to DR17 (mean fluorescence intensity

(MFI) 2073) was identified. Given that the patient was broadly sensitized to HLA antigens a better immunological match was thought unlikely to be received timeously and the transplant offer was accepted. However, just prior to transplantation a B-cell CDC crossmatch was performed. Using current serum it was weakly positive (2/8) as was the negative control, suggesting a problem with B-cell viability. The B-cell CDC crossmatch was therefore interpreted as negative; however, it was strongly positive with peak serum (8/8). The transplant physician then received a phone call from an experienced tissue typing scientist buy Dorsomorphin to discuss a further potential immunological issue. The patient was known to have an antibody to DR11 as a result of his previous transplant and in addition a DQA1*05 antibody. DR11 and DR3 (composed of the HLA DR17 and DR18 split antigen serotypes) are associated with similar DQA antigens, specifically DQA1*05, Vasopressin Receptor and the current donor was DR3 (DR17). Because information on donor DQA typing is not routinely available at the time of transplantation any known DQA antibodies can only be inferred as potentially donor-specific based on likely DQA status, predicted by common DR/DQ linkage disequilibrium data. In this case

our recipient had a DQA1*05 potential DSAb with an MFI >10 000. In addition, he was known to have several anti-DP antibodies and as for DQA DP typing of deceased donors is not routinely performed prospectively in Victoria. To further add to the complexity, donor DP antigens cannot be predicted based on linkage disequilibrium data. Following detailed explanations, defining the heightened risk of rejection associated with this transplant the patient elected to proceed with the support of his treating nephrologist. Immunosuppression was commenced with Methylprednisolone, Tacrolimus, Mycophenolate Mofetil and Basiliximab. Alternate day plasma exchange was initiated on the first postoperative day.

Thereafter, activated helper T cells control production of antigen-specific antibodies from B cells [6]. Therefore, activation of innate immunity through PRRs is required for initiation of adaptive immunity mediated by T and B cells. Vertebrates are classified as jawed and jawless [7]. Because jawless vertebrates are the most primitive vertebrates, they have been studied to gain understanding of the evolutionary processes that gave

rise to the innate and adaptive immune systems in vertebrates ([8]–[10]). In this review, we will summarize the innate and adaptive immune systems of jawless vertebrates and the convergent evolution of these systems in vertebrates. Jawless vertebrates, including lampreys and hagfish, Cyclopamine and jawed vertebrates are sister groups (Fig. 1). Molecular phylogenetic and paleontological studies indicate that these two groups of vertebrates diverged approximately 500 million years ago [7], [11]. Studies of jawless vertebrates have identified LLCs, which are morphologically similar to the T and B cells of jawed vertebrates [12]. Moreover, like jawed vertebrates, jawless vertebrates are capable of producing antigen-specific agglutinins and of forming immunological memory regarding rejection of skin allografts [13], [14]. These findings indicate that jawless vertebrates possess adaptive immunity that is similar to that of jawed vertebrates.

However, recent transcriptome analyses of LLCs have failed to identify important molecules that are central to the adaptive immunity Pritelivir of jawed Selleck C59 vertebrates, such as the TCRs, BCRs, MHCs and RAGs (Fig. 1) [15], [16]. Hence, jawless vertebrates have a unique adaptive immune system that is not based on those molecules. Novel

rearranging antigen receptors, the VLRs, have been identified as the candidate molecules that mediate adaptive immune responses of jawless vertebrates [17]. In some mitogen- and antigen-stimulated sea lampreys, many VLR transcripts containing variable numbers of diverse LRRs can be identified in activated LLCs. VLRs encode a SP, an LRRNT, multiple LRRs, a CP, a LRRCT and an invariant stalk region (2a). Based on consensus motifs and length, the LRRs are classified according to the most N-terminal LRR1 (18 residues), the most C-terminal LRRVe (24 residues) and the LRRV (24 residues) that is located between the LRR1 and the LRRVe. In each VLR transcript, the sequence of each LRR module is distinct and the number of LRRV modules variable. Before somatic rearrangement, the gVLR gene is incapable of encoding a functional protein. Two VLR genes, designated VLRA and VLRB, have been identified in hagfish and lampreys [18], [19]. VLRB was first described in sea lampreys. In hagfish, the VLRA and VLRB loci are located far apart on the same chromosome [20]. Recently, a third VLR gene, termed VLRC, was identified in lampreys [21].