2b). The ‘patchiness’ of the lesions complicated the scoring and, as a consequence, no

significant differences in histological scoring could be observed between the treatment groups (Table 1). Similarly, cytokine analysis by qRT-PCR did not reveal significant differences (data not shown). As described above, in the 3% DSS-induced model the epithelial layer was severely damaged with patchy lesions (Fig. 2b), and the administration of LGG wild-type was shown to be detrimental, in contrast to administration of the dltD selleck chemicals llc mutant (Fig. 2a and Table 1). Because Yan et al. [25] reported that the intestinal epithelial cells are an important target for certain probiotic actions of LGG, we investigated subsequently whether the detrimental effect of LGG wild-type and the enhanced efficacy of the dltD mutant correlated with the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Hereto, C57/BL6 mice received 1% DSS for three cycles of 7 days DSS–7 days normal drinking water. LGG

wild-type and dltD mutant were then given in the drinking water starting 3 Ibrutinib order days before colitis induction. In this model, there was no significant difference in body weight between the PBS-, wild-type- and dltD-treated groups (Fig. 2c). However, the dltD-mutant treated group showed a significantly attenuated colonic inflammation based on the macroscopic score (Table 2). In this milder model, epithelial damage was much less pronounced than in the 3% DSS-induced model, although colitis lesions were still clearly visible (Fig. 2d). Interestingly, the LGG wild-type also showed a trend of ameliorating the severity of the colitic parameters in this mild chronic model, although no significant difference could be observed compared to the PBS-treated group. qRT-PCR results revealed that the administration of the dltD mutant reduced mucosal IL-12p40 mRNA expression compared to the PBS-treated (P = 0·0170) and LGG wild-type-treated groups (P = 0·0363) (Fig. 3a).

IFN-γ expression was also reduced in the dltD-treated group and this was significant compared to the PBS-treated group (P = 0·0276) (Fig. 3b). As these differences in cytokine expression might be downstream Idelalisib supplier effects of a different TLR expression, we subsequently determined TLR-1, TLR-2, TLR-4 and TLR-6 mRNA expression in the three treatment groups. Mice treated with the dltD mutant showed a reduced expression of TLR-2 compared to PBS-treated mice (P = 0·0006) (Fig. 3c). Compared to LGG wild-type-treated mice, we also observed lower expression levels of TLR-1 (P = 0·0179), TLR-2 (P = 0·0328) and TLR-4 (P = 0·0443) in the dltD treated group (Fig. 3c–e). No significant differences in cytokines TNF, IL-1β, IL-10 and TGF-β were seen (data not shown). Also no significant changes in expression of TLR-6 (Fig. 3f) were observed between the three treatment groups.

In a different setting, Ixazomib research buy Leishmania infection, TLR-7 mRNA

levels were higher in C57BL/6 mice than BALB/c (Charmoy et al., 2007). However, BALB/c are responsive to TLR-7 and TLR-7/8 agonists (Zhang & Matlashewski, 2008). Screening studies with TLR agonists in the production of cytokines by common strains of mice indicated no significant differences for BALB/c (G.W. Gullikson, unpublished data). 3M-003 might be expected to be even more potent as an immunomodulator and antifungal in humans than is suggested by our murine studies. This is because 3M-003 stimulates both TLR-7 and TLR-8 in humans, and yet murine TLR-8, in contrast to human, is not functional with this class of immunomodulators alone (Gorden et al., 2005, 2006), probably related to a divergent leucine-rich repeat region in the mouse receptor (Philbin & Levy, 2007). TLR-8 agonists stimulate human PBMC to give much MK0683 ic50 greater yields of TNF-α, IL-12, IL-1, IL-6, and IL-8 than TLR-7 agonists (Gorden et al., 2005), and appear to directly stimulate human monocytes

(Gorden et al., 2005). 3M-003 directly stimulates human neutrophils, resulting in the secretion of cytokines such as IL-8, MIP-1α, and MIP-1b (unpublished data). 3M-003 would also similarly be expected to be more potent than imiquimod in humans, because 3M-003 is a more potent activator of NF-κB via TLR-7 than imiquimod (Gorden et al., 2006), and imiquimod virtually only stimulates TLR-7. Supported in part by a grant from the 3M Company. G.W.G. and M.A.A. were employees of the 3M Co. at the time of the study. D.A.S. was the

recipient of the 3M grant. Presented in part at 46th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, San Francisco, CA, September 2006, Abstracts, no. F2-1176. “
“The immune system in the female reproductive tract (FRT) does not mount an attack against human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or other sexually transmitted infections (STI) with a single endogenously produced microbicide or with a single arm of the immune system. Instead, the body deploys dozens of innate antimicrobials P-type ATPase to the secretions of the FRT. Working together, these antimicrobials along with mucosal antibodies attack viral, bacterial, and fungal targets. Within the FRT, the unique challenges of protection against sexually transmitted pathogens coupled with the need to sustain the development of an allogeneic fetus, has evolved in such a way that sex hormones precisely regulate immune function to accomplish both tasks. The studies presented in this review demonstrate that estradiol (E2) and progesterone secreted during the menstrual cycle act both directly and indirectly on epithelial cells, fibroblasts and immune cells in the reproductive tract to modify immune function in a way that is unique to specific sites throughout the FRT.

1) (4–6). Autophagy has an intracellular anti-viral function, the targeting of viral components or virions to degrade them via the lysosomes during viral infection; it also plays a role in the initiation of innate and adaptive immune system responses to viral infections (7–12). Some viruses encode virulence factors that interact with the host autophagy machinery and block autophagy. In contrast, other viruses utilize some autophagy components to facilitate their intracellular growth or cellular budding. Taking advantage of yeast genetics, autophagy-defective

HKI-272 purchase (atg/apg/aut) mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae were isolated in 1993 (the nomenclature of autophagy related genes has been unified to ATG) (13, 14). The ATG (A uT ophaG y-related) genes were later isolated and characterized (Table 1) (5, 13, 15). Most ATG genes

contribute to autophagosome formation, many being well conserved from yeast to mammals. Although the molecular mechanisms and cellular functions of mammalian autophagy were being ITF2357 datasheet elucidated within a decade, our molecular understanding of autophagy is still far from complete. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanism of action of mammalian Atg proteins and their cellular functions in autophagy. In mammals, the “core” Atg proteins are divided into five subgroups: the ULK1 protein kinase complex (16), Vps34-beclin1 class III PI3-kinase complex (17), Atg9-WIPI-1 complex (18–20), Atg12 conjugation system (21, 22), and LC3 conjugation system (23, 24). Autophagy is impaired without any of these “core” Atg gene products, indicating that a sequential reaction of many protein complexes, including kinases, phosphatases, lipids, and ATP-dependent conjugation, are indispensable for the whole process of autophagy. Upstream of the autophagy machinery, Aspartate class I PI3-kinase and mTor kinase contribute to the induction of autophagy (25). The Vps34-beclin1 class

III PI3-kinase complex is divided into at least three types, the Atg14-Vps34-Vps15-beclin1, UVRAG-Vps34-Vps15-beclin1, and Rubicon-UVRAG-Vps34-Vps15-beclin1 complexes (26–29). Each complex contributes to a different function during autophagy. The Atg9-WIPI-1 complex is composed of an Atg9 membrane-protein and WIPI-1 (18, 30). Two ubiquitylation-like reactions, the Atg12 and LC3 conjugation systems, are essential for the initiation and formation of autophagosomes (Fig. 1, Initiation, elongation, and maturation). The ULK1 protein kinase complex is composed of ULK1 (a protein kinase), Atg13, FIP200, and Atg101 (Fig. 1, Initiation) (16, 31–35). The mTOR kinase directly phosphorylates Atg13 to negatively regulate autophagy (33). Atg101 is important for the stability and basal phosphorylation of Atg13 and ULK1 (34, 35).

001). In contrast, scores for both cored and diffuse SP for each region (except for diffuse SP in occipital cortex: X2 = 11.7, P = 0.008) did not significantly differ across the four pathological phenotypes (cored-frontal: X2 = 1.8, P = 0.609; temporal: X2 = 3.5, P = 0.318; occipital: X2 = 7.1, P = 0.07) (diffuse-frontal: X2 = 2.4, P = 0.495; temporal: X2 = 2.2, P = 0.534). Post-hoc analysis for diffuse SP in occipital cortex revealed a significant difference between group 1 and group

2 (P < 0.001). There were no significant differences between the four groups with regard to the proportion Talazoparib of patients with ‘typical’ vs. ‘focal’ variants of AD. A statistically significant (X2 = 4.1, P = 0.042) difference in gender proportions was observed between group 1 and group 2 (Figure 3) such that women (64.7%) made up a greater proportion of group 1 than men, but a lesser proportion of group 2 (43.4%). There were no statistically significant differences in the distribution of cases with a positive family history Enzalutamide nmr of AD across the four pathological phenotypes.

There were no significant differences between the four pathological phenotypes for either the mean age of onset (F3,96 = 1.248, P = 0.297), mean age at death (F3,117 = 1.364, P = 0.257), mean disease duration (F3,97 = 11.786, P = 0.277) or mean brain weight (F3,111 = 0.370, P = 0.775) (Table 1). The frequency of APOE alleles and genotype within each pathological phenotypic group are shown in Table 2. There was a statistically significant difference between the genotype groups with the ε4/ε4 genotype frequency being significantly higher in group 3 compared with group

1 (χ2 = 9.6, P = 0.002) and the ε3/ε3 genotype frequency consequently being significantly lower in group 3 compared with group 1 (χ2 = 4.5, P = 0.033). The APOE ε4 allele frequency was significantly higher in group 3 than group 1 χ2 = 9.7, P = 0.002), but only tended to be higher in group 2 compared with group 3 χ2 = 3.6, P = 0.057). No significant differences in ε2 allele frequency were found between any of the four pathological groups. Seven cases were identified where the pathological phenotype was not clearly assignable, although these most closely resembled the type 2 phenotype (Table 3). All had Aβ deposition in the form of numerous MTMR9 SP and CAA in leptomeningeal and cortical vessels which, while present in the frontal and/or temporal lobe, and in contrast to ‘typical’ type 2 cases, was NOT present within the occipital lobe. No significant differences were seen in either the age of onset (P = 0.716), age at death (P = 0.930), disease duration (P = 0.630) or brain weight (P = 0.952) were found between these and the typical group 2 cases. There was no significant difference in the proportion of APOE ε4 allele bearers between the typical group 2 cases and the group 2 ‘outliers’.

The ability of IL-17 to induce nitric oxide synthesis in cartilage,

production of proinflammatory cytokines in BTK signaling pathway inhibitors peripheral blood macrophages and collagenases in chondrocytes implies its role in cartilage biology [30, 31]. Here we investigated for the first time the role of the IL-17F gene polymorphisms on susceptibility and severity of RA in Polish population. We analysed two polymorphisms in the IL-17F gene at positions 7383 A/G and 7488 A/G. Both SNPs are localized in exon 3, which caused the substitution of adenine to guanine, and they also change amino acid in the protein sequence. The first SNP at position 7383A/G changes glutamic acid (GAG) to glycine (GGG), the second SNP at position 7844A/G changes histidine (CAT) to arginine (CGT). The results of this study showed that are no significant differences between patients with RA and control subjects in genotypes distribution and alleles frequencies for the polymorphisms selleck chemicals Glu126Gly and His161Arg of the IL-17F gene (Table 2). The allele frequencies of IL-17F polymorphisms were studied with HapMap project. They showed some differences in comparison with other populations. The minor allele frequency of His161Arg

variants was lower for the Polish subjects (3.8%) than for the populations from Canada, United States of America, United Kingdom, China, Japan and Nigeria, but the minor allele frequency of Glu126Gly polymorphism was higher in our group (10%) compared with the other populations. Moreover, in populations from Nigeria and Japan was detected only wild-type allele for Glu126Gly. There are few reports that showed the correlation of the IL-17F His161Arg

and Glu126Gly polymorphisms with development and course of human disorders. Southam L et al. [30] studied the association of both polymorphisms with susceptibility to the osteoarthritis. pheromone However, they did not find differences in His161Arg and Glu126Gly IL-17F genotypes distribution and alleles frequencies between patients with osteoarthritis and healthy groups. Kawaguchi M et al. [25] reported that rare allele G of the IL-17F His162Arg polymorphism is inversely associated with development of asthma, and low frequency of polymorphic homozygote suggests that the His162Arg variant does not contribute substantially to the disease at the population. They also showed that functional consequences of this polymorphism, which was examined by using recombinant wild-type and mutant IL-17F proteins, may be suppressed expression and activity of IL-17F in carriers of rare allele G. These authors also demonstrated that the IL-17F coding variant of His161Arg, which is associated with impaired IL-17F signalling, blocked induction of IL-8 expression by wild-type IL-17F in vitro functional experiments. In a recent study, Ramsey et al. [32], using Caucasian female, found no correlation between IL-17F polymorphisms (including His161Arg) and asthma.

Surveillance will also provide data to indicate if type replacement or escape Doramapimod manufacturer mutants occur. Other important tasks for the HPV surveillance include monitoring of the duration of protection, long-term safety and actual effects on health-care cost consumption. Monitoring the impact of vaccination on type-specific infection could be important as it is the earliest change that could be anticipated, and failure to detect protection from infection will indicate

failure to impact cancer in the decades that follow and allow appropriate changes in strategy to be introduced. As countries differ in their health-care priorities and infrastructure as well as in their incidence and prevalence of various HPV infections, their HPV vaccination strategies are also likely to differ. Levels of protective antibodies in the population.  As has been mentioned, the waning in the levels of HPV antibodies post-vaccination appears to plateau after 5 years. It is not known whether waning of HPV

antibody levels in the longer term will require a vaccine booster. In addition, antibody correlates of protection have LY2157299 nmr not been defined because there have so far been almost no cases of vaccination failure. If a reliable immunological correlate of protection can be identified, this will help in assessing the requirement for booster vaccinations and greatly facilitate the evaluation of second-generation vaccines. Population coverage of HPV vaccination.  Many countries are likely to implement HPV vaccination registries to determine coverage [86]. Rough estimations of vaccine can be made from health insurance statistics and sales figures [87]. Seroepidemiological surveys could be used to establish the population coverage of vaccination, as well as to monitor

the time–course of persistence of titres in the population. HPV DNA prevalences in sexually active teenage populations.  Montelukast Sodium As the type-specific prevalence of HPV infection is very high in young sexually active populations, the effect of a successful HPV vaccination programme should be detected quite rapidly by sentinel surveillance in these populations. The specific design of these sentinel studies will vary, but selecting clinics offering sexual counselling may be more efficient than school-based sampling. Reduction in the prevalence of types targeted by the vaccines as well as no increase in the prevalence of non-vaccine types are important end-points. Baseline data are needed to establish prevaccine prevalence as well as to determine the sample size required to observe impact beyond confidence intervals of sampling and testing errors.

Moreover, obesity, which is a phenotypic risk factor for T2D development, has been demonstrated to predispose patients to several autoimmune disorders, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and psoriasis [40,41]. Proinflammatory CD4+ T cells in adipose tissue have been demonstrated to stimulate the development of CD8+ T cells [17,22]. These observations are important, as the CD8+ T cells are generally considered to be the cells capable of lysing cells, both foreign and self, in the development of inflammation and autoreactive responses [42–46]. Until recently, the development of autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases

was believed to rely on the stimulation of a subset of CD4+ proinflammatory cells designated as T helper type 1 (Th1). However, with the discovery of IL-23 it has now become apparent HTS assay that other immune

system players are implicated in autoimmune disease development. One of the immune system culprits is the cytokine IL-17. IL-17 has been demonstrated to be produced by a new T cell subset designated Th17. The Th17 T cells have been implicated directly in the pathogenesis of both inflammatory and autoimmune diseases [47–49]. Moreover, obesity and chronic inflammation have been demonstrated to promote selectively an expansion of the Th17 T cell subset [50]. The increased Th17 bias, the increases in CD8+ T cell subsets and establishment of an inflammatory milieu may represent the link between inflammation, T2D and subsequent development of islet autoimmune disease https://www.selleckchem.com/products/AG-014699.html in T2D patients.

Another component of diabetes disease development is the resulting pancreatic lesion. The pancreatic lesion in patients with diabetes encompasses a spectrum of diminished or destroyed capability of the pancreatic islets to produce insulin. In the pancreas of T1D patients the β cells are destroyed selectively by the immune system in an autoimmune attack, whereas the pancreatic lesion of phenotypic T2D patients has been believed historically to be a metabolic defect, resulting in diminished secretory capability. However, recently the pancreas Methane monooxygenase of T2D patients have been demonstrated to be infiltrated by immune cells [17–19]. These studies suggest that immune-mediated islet damage may be a component of more than just classic T1D. β cell destruction and damage caused by soluble immune mediators occurs most probably in the pathogenesis of both T1D and T2D. In T1D, the invading immune cells produce cytokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α and interferon (IFN)-γ. These cytokines have been demonstrated to directly induce β cell apoptosis [51]. In T2D, the circulating IL-6 and IL-1β have also been associated with β cell apoptosis [52]. Moreover, elevated levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and C-reactive protein (CRP) are predictive of T2D development [28–31]. Treatment of T2D patients with IL-1ra to block the effects of IL-1β improves β cell function and diabetes control [32].

They could additionally damage myocardial tissue, because MHC class I proteins

disappeared in the central infarction sites, whereas their expression was conserved, but weaker in the surrounding peri-necrotic zones of the MI 1 week after an acute coronary event when compared to myocardial tissue sections of persons who died 5 weeks after an acute coronary event. It find more suggests susceptibility of peri-infarction zones for NK cell killing mediated by cytotoxic mediators. GNLY+ CD3+ cells and rarely GNLY+ CD56+ cells reach the apoptotic APAF-1+ cardiomyocytes in the border infiltration zone of persons who died 1 week after the acute coronary event and could participate in the apoptosis of these cells. Accordingly, apoptotic single-stranded DNA–positive cells were found in the border zones and granulation tissue cells in the infarct region by Akasaka et al. [7]. But, it is unlikely that GNLY+ cells cause significant cardiomyocytes apoptosis because of their small

numbers. In addition, later after the MI, the APAF-1+ apoptotic myocardial cells are found without close contact with GNLY+ cells, suggesting implementation of GNLY-independent mechanism of cellular loss. A formation of apoptosome after the binding of APAF-1 protein with cytochrome C could induce caspase 9 dimerization and autocatalysis [32]. Indeed, apoptotic markers (caspase 3 and apoptotic bodies) are present in the surviving zone of the heart, remote from the infarct region, as early as day 1 after MI and persist for up to 1 month

[3, 33]. Additionally, NADPH-cytochrome-c2 reductase www.selleckchem.com/products/BIBW2992.html on day 7 after an acute coronary event, the significant increase in the percentage of peripheral blood GNLY+ NK cells enables GNLY-mediated K-562 apoptosis, as the mechanism attributed to perforin-mediated cytotoxicity [31]. GNLY probably accesses the K562 target cell cytoplasm through perforin pores or by other mechanisms that involve sublytic perforin concentrations in agreement with Lettau et al. [18], because an additive effect between GNLY- and perforin-mediated cytotoxicity has not been found. This suggests that they probably use the same mechanism for entering cells. On day 14, in patients with NSTEMI, GNLY expression, as well as perforin expression [31], in all peripheral blood lymphocyte subpopulations was the lowest and it was reflected in negligible NK cell apoptotic activity against K-562 cells. The lower percentage of GNLY-positive NK cells in patients with NSTEMI on day 21 as compared to day 7, correlated well with mostly perforin-mediated NK cell killing as a redundant apoptotic mechanism [27]. At the end of a 1-month rehabilitation period in patients with NSTEMI, we again found significant participation of GNLY in K562 apoptosis as a result of restored GNLY expression in peripheral blood NK cells.

47 Thus, JSRV Env is a dominant oncoprotein; however the mechanisms of cell transformation induced by the JSRV Env are not completely understood. Although the mitogen-activated protein kinase (Ras-MEK-MAPK), Rac1, and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K-AKT-mTOR) pathways are implicated in JSRV-induced cell transformation, it still remains to be determined how the cytoplasmic tail engages the cell signaling network to

activate these pathways.50–54 The majority of the 27 enJSRV proviruses are www.selleckchem.com/products/AZD2281(Olaparib).html defective as a result of deletions, nonsense mutations, and recombinations; however, five enJSRV proviruses contain intact genomes with uninterrupted open reading frames for all the retroviral genes (Fig. 1).6 These enJSRV loci are insertionally polymorphic in the domestic sheep population. JSRV and enJSRVs have an overall high degree of similarity (approximately 85–89% identity

at the nucleotide level). The evolutionary history of these proviruses together with ruminants suggests Luminespib concentration that integration of enJSRVs began before the split between the genus Ovis and the genus Capra, approximately 5–7 million years ago, and continued after sheep domestication (approximately 10,000 years ago).6,7 Interestingly, one enJSRV provirus, enJSRV-26, is thought to have integrated in the host <200 years ago and may be a unique integration event occurred in a single animal.6 Thus, the enJSRVs are most likely still invading the sheep genome. In sheep, the morula-stage embryo enters the uterus by day 5 after mating and forms a blastocyst by day 6 that contains a blastocoele surrounded by a monolayer of trophectoderm.55,56 By day 9, the blastocyst hatches from the zona pellucida, develops into an ovoid conceptus by day 12, and then begins to elongate (reaching 25 cm or more by day 17). Elongation of the conceptus is critical for the production of interferon tau (IFNT), which is the pregnancy recognition signal

needed to maintain progesterone production by the corpus luteum, and also for the onset of implantation.57 Isotretinoin Implantation of the conceptus involves the apposition, attachment, and adhesion of the conceptus trophectoderm to the endometrial luminal epithelium (LE) of the uterus. Within the outer layer of the conceptus termed the chorion, binucleated trophectoderm cells, termed trophoblast giant binucleate cells (BNC), begin to appear as early as day 14.58 The BNC are thought to be derived from the mononuclear trophectoderm cells by a process referred to as mitotic polyploidy, which involves consecutive nuclear divisions without cytokinesis.59 BNC then fuse with uterine LE to form trinucleate fetomaternal hybrid cells.58 Other BNCs fuse with the trinucleate cells (and likely each other) to form plaques of multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast that have 20–25 nuclei. Trophoblast BNC of the sheep placenta are analogous in many ways to the giant cells of the syncytiotrophoblast of the human placenta.

The first four stages are approximately 5 days each in duration whereas Stage V lasts for 69 days.

Stage VI duration is indeterminate and can last for many years until immunological control fails (Fig. 1). The temporal appearance of functional responses in relation to viral dynamics provides important clues about the mechanisms of immunological control. In this regard, it is also possible to discriminate between recent and chronic infections in Fiebig Stage VI using a sensitive/less-sensitive algorithm that employs a standard HIV ELISA (sensitive) and a ‘detuned HIV ELISA’ (less sensitive) that detects increasing antibody titres that emerge early after infection.[30] Hence, the detuned ELISA can discriminate individuals in the early part of Fiebig Stage VI who were recently infected versus those who are chronically infected. More recent studies show that increased levels of acute-phase proteins, such as JQ1 cell line serum amyloid precursor A, are elevated as early as the eclipse phase but wane around day 20 post-T0.[31] A cytokine storm follows beginning 6 days after T0 in Fiebig

Stage II, waning around day 20 post-T0.[32] Immune complexes of HIV with either IgM or IgG appear at day 8 post-T0 and become undetectable around day 20 post-T0. Free IgG non-neutralizing antibodies to gp41 appear 13 days after T0, early in Fiebig Stage IV.[29] Free IgG non-neutralizing antibodies appear 28 days after T0, midway in Fiebig Stage IV.[29] Autologous neutralizing antibodies appear approximately at day selleck chemicals 82 post-T0, late in Fiebig Stage V, followed by neutralization insensitive viral variants around 10 days later, apparently selected by neutralization pressure (reviewed in ref. [21]).

These antibodies are narrowly specific for autologous virus with neutralization breadth increasing slowly over time thereafter.[33] Hence, there is a 55-day window between the appearance of the first free IgG antibodies that bind to gp41 or gp120 and the emergence of narrowly specific neutralizing antibodies.[21] By contrast, the first CD8+ cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses appear at the beginning of Fiebig Stage III, around day 20, followed by the emergence of CTL escape viruses 10 days later at HA-1077 chemical structure the beginning of Fiebig Stage V, suggesting that these responses exert immunological pressure on the virus (reviewed in ref. [21]). Because there is a 60-day lag between the CD8+ CTL response and neutralizing antibody response, it has been widely accepted that post-infection control of viraemia is largely due to CTLs. This conclusion is also supported by CD8 depletion studies in NHPs.[34, 35] By contrast, in acutely HIV-infected individuals, there is evidence that antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) responses appear around day 36 post-T0, at the beginning of Fiebig Stage V, and that these responses correlate inversely with viral load.