The combined cost function for n buoys is: equation(8) cost=12∑i=1n(Ri-ri)2σri2+(Li-li)2σli2,where equation(9) σri2=ηi2+ϕi2, equation(10) σli2=ηli2+ϕi2+ϕL2,and each i is a buoy and the denominators are the summed uncertainties. The model output in the default configuration has zonally oriented bands in correlation and lead time, especially in the Central and Eastern Pacific. The model correlation, R, is enhanced along the equator and flanked by wider bands of very low R from about 1.5°N to 5°N and 2°S to 5°S ( Fig. 4). Model lead time, L, has a similar structure, with longer lead times

along BIBF 1120 nmr the equator, flanked to the north and south by broad bands of lower lead times ( Fig. 8). While the network of buoys has a much lower spatial resolution, the same structure of enhanced r and reduced l is evident along the equator. Zonal bands of diminished r and enhanced l are evident along 2°N and 5°N and S, but are

difficult to resolve. Further from the equator, along 8°N and S, model correlation and lead time show little similarity to data. In all experiments, the model overestimates the magnitude of the average τ-SST correlation, ranging from 5.8% to 25.6%, and by 24.4% in the default configuration. All but two experiments reduce this bias relative to the default winds and parameters, yet none eliminate the bias ( Fig. 6). The correlation is highly sensitive to wind forcing product ( Figs. 6 and 7): the NOAA wind product (Exp. 2) reduced the correlation relative to the default experiment by 14.7%, while the greatest sensitivity to any parameter (the critical gradient Richardson number Rio) was a reduction in Avasimibe ic50 correlation by just 6.4% (Exp. 6). This is especially true in the Central and Eastern Pacific, as alternative wind products tend to

reduce the correlation relative to the default, bringing it close to observations ( Fig. 7). At 47 out of 65 buoys the model correlation with default KPP Amylase parameters is greater than the observational correlation ( Fig. 4). A zonal pattern in misfit is also evident, as the overestimation is generally more significant for buoys farther from the equator ( Fig. 4). The overestimation is exaggerated from 180°W westward, due to a modeled increase in the magnitude of the correlation relative to the Eastern Pacific that is not as distinct in the observations ( Fig. 7). This may be related to the separation between the deep thermocline and the shallow mixed layer in the Western Pacific, which may act as a barrier to the entrainment of cooler water from the thermocline to the surface during wind events ( Lukas and Lindstrom, 1991). The lead time to maximum correlation has a meridional spatial pattern, increasing in the Eastern Pacific in both the model (L) and in observations (l) ( Figs. 8 and 9). The model also shows a slight decrease in lead time from the Western Pacific eastward toward the Central Pacific, but this is less evident in the observations ( Fig. 9).

The same takes place in the case of onshore winds except for the southward shift of radiance maxima ( Figure 3, (d)–(f)). The radiances of moderate intensity extend tens of kilometres further westwards in the case of the offshore wind as compared to the onshore one. This difference peaks at latitudes corresponding to Y ∼ 150–200 km ( Figure 3). The differences dLoff–onwnav (λ) = Loffwnav (λ) − Lonwnav (λ), where Loffwnav (λ) and Lonwnav (λ) are binned radiances at offshore and onshore winds, are mapped in Figure 4. The maximum dLoff–onwnav (λ) are comparable to the Loffwnav (λ) in magnitude, are located between the 10 and 15 m isobaths and extend from 90 to 180

km in the y-axis and from 140 to 200 km in the x-axis. In Figure 5, the zonal profiles of the learn more bottom relief are compared to the profiles of radiance differences dLwnav at 443, 555 and 670 nm. It is evident that (1)dLwnav distributions west of the shallow are flat and exhibit minor between-profile distinctions; buy XL184 (2) profile segments at depths Z < 30 m indicate substantial enhancement of Loffav (λ) against Lonav (λ) at sites with moderate steepness of the sea floor (profiles (d)–(g)) and a virtually zero radiance difference at greater bottom steepness (profiles (a) and (b)); (3) profiles of dLav (443) and dLav (555) have the highest magnitude

and resemble each other in position and shape, but a number of dLav (670) profiles appear to be shifted eastwards and differ in shape from the corresponding radiance profiles at shorter wavelengths (d)–(f). The profiles of Loffav and Lonav in Figure 6 demonstrate the following trend: the onshore radiance slightly exceeds the offshore radiance

in the deep-water part of the middle and northern testing area; an inverse relation between them occurs at the western boundary of the shallow; further east, Loffav grows faster than these Lonav but the latter overtakes the former in the vicinity of the coastline. As a result, the summary radiance progression in the presence of easterly and westerly winds looks like a closed loop, whose lower and upper branches correspond to the onshore and offshore events. The eastern intersections of the branches occur at sites of less than a few metres of water, where the insufficient accuracy of the bottom topography model prevents a stricter association of intersections with bottom features. The higher-sensitivity profiles in Figure 6 (dashed) indicate that western intersections occurred at Z > 30 m if r < = 160 km but occurred at sites with 14–30 m of water in profiles at r > 160 km distinguished by roughness of bottom relief in the west of the shallow. In some cases the depth and radiance profiles show conformity in their shape: the two-step structures of the offshore branch of the radiance loop and of the bottom profile in Figure 6f appear to be a manifestation of such conformity. However, the more intricate relationships of these profiles outnumber the situations of straightforward interpretability.

3). We then investigated whether selleck inhibitor the bacterial infection interfered with ovary activation in the beebread-fed queenless bees. Infection indeed impaired ovary activation, as was shown by a significantly lower number of bees with activated ovaries compared to the non-infected bees on this same diet (Fig.

3, insert). To investigate whether the effects of nutrition and infection extended to other reproduction-related genes (in addition to storage protein and receptor genes), we analyzed the vasa transcripts levels in the bees fed on different diets and challenged with S. marcescens. Significantly higher vasa transcripts levels were observed in the bees fed beebread than in those fed the other diets ( Fig. 4). Like observed for the vg, vgR, and hex 70a genes, bacterial infection impaired the increase in vasa transcript levels in the beebread-fed PF-562271 cell line bees ( Fig. 4). In the present study, we explored the costs of bacterial infection on gene transcription, protein storage and ovary activation in honey bee workers in relation to the type of the supplied diet. In a previous study (Lourenço et al., 2009), we used injection rather than oral administration to bacterially infect bees and then analyzed vg and hex 70a expression at 12 h post-infection. The transcript and protein-level responses to bacterial injection

were not distinguishable from those caused by water injection (injury). In the present work, the injury effect was circumvented by orally administering the bacteria via the diet. In addition, we extended the duration of the experiments (to 6 and 9 days) and considered additional parameters, i.e., nutrition and ovary status (activated or non-activated). Three other genes (vgR, apoLpR and vasa) were also investigated in the current study. Notably, the cost of infection on transcription and protein levels was mostly evident in the beebread-fed bees. In these bees, the transcription of vg, vgR, hex 70a and vasa, and the levels of Vg and Hex 70a proteins, were clearly impaired by the infection. These results indicate

that the physiological cost of infection is better evidenced under certain dietary conditions. Furthermore, the dynamic process of Vg storage (in hemolymph) and mobilization (to the fat body) may have been disrupted since the expression of vgR was inhibited in beebread-fed tuclazepam bees as a consequence of the infection. Royal jelly, like beebread, is a rich source of proteins for bees. It might be thought that the proportion of royal jelly in the diet was insufficient to allow increased levels of vg, vgR, hex 70a and vasa transcripts, and the Vg and Hex 70a proteins. Alternatively, the diet could have provided an excess of royal jelly and caused adverse effects on transcription. It is known that high levels of dietary protein consumption negatively correlate with survival in young worker honey bees ( Pirk et al., 2010).

, 2010 and Silva et al., 2010). Those airborne particles have been shown to be mutagenic and can also cause significant alterations in respiratory mechanics and lung histology (Andrade et al., 2011, Goto et al., 2011, Mazzoli-Rocha et al., 2008 and Umbuzeiro et al., 2008a). A wide variety of natural products Anti-diabetic Compound Library nmr are currently being evaluated in terms of their chemopreventive properties, which could counter the harmful effects of mutagenic compounds present in the environment (Kang et al., 2010 and Kaur et al., 2010). Casearia sylvestris Swartz (Salicaceae) is a tropical tree,

commonly known as “guaçatonga” in Brazil, that is widely used for its healing, anti-inflammatory, and anti-ulcer properties ( Borges et al., 2000, Sertié et al., 2000 and Esteves et al., 2005). Phytochemical investigations reveal that the major buy LDK378 compounds isolated from C. sylvestris, including clerodane diterpenes, exhibit both cytotoxic and antifungal activities ( Carvalho-Oliveira et al., 2005, Orbelies et al., 2002 and Santos et al., 2010). In addition, recent assays of the ethanolic leaf extract

of C. sylvestris and caseargrewiin F (a clerodane diterpene within the extract) have demonstrated that those substances are antimutagenic at low concentrations ( Oliveira et al., 2009). The aim of the present study was to determine whether the ethanolic leaf extracts of C. sylvestris and casearin X protect cells against total

suspended particulate (TSP)-induced DNA damage. In the city of Araraquara, Brazil, 24-h TSP samples were collected over two 10-day periods in 2003—first in March and then in September—the latter being during the sugarcane burning season. The samples were collected with a high-volume sampler (Handi-vol; Energética, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) operating at an average flow rate of 1.1–1.7 m3 · min− 1, positioned 4 m above the ground and protected from the rain, at a sampling site in a suburban area. The city of Araraquara (located at 21°48′11″S, 48°08′25″W, with a population of approximately 200,000) is situated in the so-called “sugarcane belt”, a region in the middle of the state of São Paulo that is responsible for most of the sugarcane production in Brazil. The closest sugarcane crop was approximately 5 km from the sampling site. Particles ASK1 were collected on fiberglass filters (Energética), which were dried for 24 h at 50 °C, before and after particle collection, for weighing. The filters were then stored at 4 °C until analysis. Each filter was cut in small pieces and extracted with dichloromethane (DCM):methanol (MeOH) at 4:1 (v/v) in separate Erlenmeyer flasks. The flasks containing the DCM:MeOH and filter strips were ultrasonicated for 10 min at 40 Hz, and the resulting solution was passed through a 0.45-μm filter (Corning Glass Works, Corning, New York, USA).

131Xe NMR spectroscopy has even been applied to characterize xenon compounds [43] and [44]. Spectroscopic 131Xe studies of surfaces have also been performed at low temperatures [45] and in variety of porous

materials [46], [47], [48], [49] and [50]. Thermally polarized 131Xe magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with liquefied xenon provided a contrast sensitive to surface adsorbed water in aerogels [51]. Unfortunately, the low gyromagnetic ratio and often kHz-broad linewidths of 131Xe lead to exceedingly small NMR signal-to-noise ratios when thermally polarized gas is used. As a result, the surface-specific insights provided by this isotope have primarily been confined to extremely high surface to volume ratio environments that generate rapid T1 relaxation or systems that can withstand xenon at high pressures. In contrast, the

relatively long relaxation Tanespimycin molecular weight times observed in the gas phase and in the presence of low surface to volume materials make thermally polarized 131Xe NMR unpractical, in particular at low gas densities. However, these conditions are ideal for studies employing hyperpolarized (hp) 131Xe that provides orders of magnitude of signal enhancement but also requires long relaxation times in order to preserve the hyperpolarization. Systems http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Gefitinib.html with longitudinal 131Xe relaxation times substantially shorter than T1 = 1 s do not permit meaningful applications of hyperpolarized 131Xe NMR, unless interfaces of theses systems to the bulk gas phase were to be studied. Like all NMR active noble gas isotopes, high non-equilibrium nuclear spin polarization can be generated in gaseous 131Xe through alkali metal vapor spin-exchange

optical pumping (SEOP) [52] and [53]. The fundamental details of hp 131Xe production have been explored in some detail Thalidomide by Volk [29] and [54], Happer [30], [31] and [32], Pines [33], Mehring [34], and their respective co-workers. Luo et al. have also studied 131Xe SEOP using cesium in high magnetic fields at 11.7 T [55]. Optically detected NMR experiments using SEOP were applied in the past to study the influence of the glass container surfaces on the gas-phase hp 131Xe relaxation and were used to investigate xenon adsorption phenomena on glass surfaces [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34] and [35]. The shape of macroscopic containers with centimeter-sized dimensions was found to cause an anisotropy in the effective electric field gradient that can lead to a small quadrupolar splitting, typically in the Hz regime or less. Following earlier work with 201Hg and 83Kr [56] and [57], the 131Xe splitting was observed at low magnetic fields in the gas phase contained in cylindrical cells [29], [30], [31], [32], [33], [34] and [35]. The splitting was strongly dependent on the aspect ratio of the cell dimensions and the cell orientation within the magnetic field.

De qualquer forma, os resultados do nosso estudo vão ao encontro,

ainda que em parte, às observações que Bóer registou em diabéticos e não diabéticos ao referir que a hiperglicemia diminuía o peristaltismo Inhibitor Library screening esofágico. O facto de se observar que os diabéticos com a glicemia matinal em jejum aumentada têm uma frequência significativamente mais elevada de ondas não transmitidas, justifica assim a relevância clínica deste estudo. Este facto lança luz à necessidade de um controlo da glicemia mais adequado que permita manter os seus níveis abaixo de 7 mmol/l. Em conclusão, no grupo de pacientes diabéticos tipo 2 estudados, a percentagem de ondas não transmitidas foi significativamente mais elevada entre pacientes com glicemia em jejum > Pirfenidone mw 7 mmol/l. As outras características das ondas esofágicas não revelaram qualquer diferença significativa

entre os 2 grupos de pacientes diabéticos. Os autores declaram não haver conflito de interesses. “
“A doença hepática autoimune (DHAI) é responsável por 2 a 5% dos casos de hepatopatia crónica na criança1 and 2. Resulta de intolerância imunológica contra as células hepáticas, com evolução para inflamação crónica e destruição progressiva3. Este processo pode envolver predominantemente os hepatócitos ou o epitélio dos ductos biliares intra e/ou extra-hepáticos, denominando-se respetivamente hepatite autoimune (HAI) e colangite esclerosante primária (CEP)3, 4 and 5; a cirrose biliar primária (CBP) nunca foi diagnosticada em idade pediátrica. Aspetos sugestivos de ambas as doenças (HAI e CEP) podem estar presentes no mesmo doente, simultaneamente na altura do diagnóstico, ou em alturas diferentes ao longo da evolução da sua doença, designando-se nesse caso «síndrome de overlap» (SO) 5, 6, 7 and 8. Na idade pediátrica é particularmente frequente o overlap HAI-CEP. Existem scores de diagnóstico de HAI validados para adultos e que são aplicados na população pediátrica 1, 9, 10 and 11, mas não existem critérios de diagnóstico bem definidos de CEP 1, 4, 6 and 7. Para além das dificuldades

por vezes notadas em afirmar o diagnóstico, a distinção entre HAI, CEP e SO pode ser muito difícil. Na idade pediátrica há alguns estudos sobre HAI1, 2, 4, 8, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28 and 29, mas são mais raras tuclazepam as publicações sobre CEP e SO8, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 and 33. O objetivo deste trabalho é conhecer as dificuldades de diagnóstico de DHAI numa população pediátrica. Estudo retrospetivo baseado na consulta dos processos clínicos das crianças e adolescentes com DHAI seguidos nas consultas de Hepatologia e de Gastrenterologia de um hospital pediátrico, no período de janeiro de 1992 a 31 de dezembro de 2010. Parâmetros analisados: sexo, idade, aspetos clínicos, estudos laboratoriais, imagiológicos e histológicos e resposta ao tratamento.

(8). This “perfect model” of correlation should be free of bias because the numerator is a function of the model only ( Fig. 11). The variance of the costR¯

across the KPP parameter experiments (Exps. 4–22), divided by the variance of the blended wind experiments (Exps. 23–42), approximates a signal to noise ratio. The result is 0.86, meaning the perfect model correlation cost is more sensitive to blended wind forcing than to KPP perturbations. The cost function is likely most sensitive to parameters that control the physical processes involved in the τ-SST correlation. The greatest cost(R, r) sensitivity – as measured by the difference in cost between its upward and downward perturbations – is to the critical gradient Richardson number, Olaparib price Ri0 ( Fig. 10b). Shear diffusivity beneath the boundary layer, vs, is modeled as a function of the local gradient Richardson number, Rig. Ri0 modulates the magnitude of shear diffusivity vs for a given amount of vertical shear: vs peaks when Rig = 0 and diminishes to zero when Rig = Ri0. When Ri0 is lowered (Exp. 7), vertical diffusivity vs

is Selleck Navitoclax greatly reduced, and model correlation R decreases. In contrast, increasing Ri0 allows for diffusivity vs over a broader range of Rig, which has little effect on R ocean-wide. While the τ-SST correlation sensitivity ( Fig. 6) and the correlation-based cost [cost(R, r)] sensitivity ( Fig. 10b) reflect ocean-wide patterns, the balance of the processes influencing the τ-SST correlation likely varies temporally and spatially. Indeed, sensitivity to Ri0 is highest near the equator in the Central and Eastern Pacific Chlormezanone ( Fig. 12) in the area of the Pacific cold tongue, where upwelling from the interior may play a role in the regulation of SST. The model boundary layer is also at its shallowest in this region, with depths averaging 10–25 m, so turbulent eddy penetration into the interior is plausible. Near the equator, wind direction, which is not directly included in the cost function, may also be an important control on

SST, as easterly winds cause upwelling from the thermocline, and westerly winds impede it. Interestingly, despite not including wind direction in the cost function, observational correlation r and model correlation R are enhanced along the equator ( Fig. 4). This may reflect the dominance of the pattern of easterly winds and the associated divergence and upwelling. It may also reflect the role of the Equatorial Undercurrent in enhancing shear in this area. Because some of the highest correlation-based cost sensitivities are to the structure function for scalars in unstable conditions (ϕsunstϕsunst) and the nonlocal transport term (γs) ( Fig. 10.b. [experiments 13–14 and 15–16]), which are nonzero only in convective conditions, the cost function is likely sensitive to the parameterization of wind-driven evaporation and convection, rather than solely to wind-driven shear turbulence.

In the present study, clinical symptoms, laboratory assays, pedigree data, and genomic DNA sequence analysis were used in order to establish an odonto-HPP genotype–phenotype association, and these data are summarized in Fig. 1. Tracing the family history, the mother of the probands (subjects A and B) was asymptomatic, and her serum ALP activity was found to be normal (51 U/L; normal range 25–100 U/L). However,

the father presented clinical signs of dental abnormalities including short Everolimus roots, mild enamel defects, pulp chamber enlargement, low serum ALP levels (18 U/L; normal range 25–100 U/L), and reported a familial history of early tooth loss in his father. Overall, these findings suggested initially that the disorder was transmitted through autosomal dominant inheritance (Fig. 1). Screening for mutations in the ALPL gene revealed two genetic alterations in the probands ( Supplementary data). Firstly, there was a heterozygous substitution C→T at position 454-nt, leading to the substitution of cysteine for arginine 152 (p.R152C), an alteration previously described in this family and found in

the mother of the probands [18], [19] and [20]. The p.R152C (c.454C>T) missense mutation, associated to other mutation p.R184W (c.550C>T), has been reported previously in a case of adult HPP (p.[R152C];[R184W]; SESEP — University of Versailles- Saint Quentin), Galunisertib research buy whereas a mutation affecting the same codon p.R152H (c.455G>A) has been described in the mother of a patient with a lethal clinical form of HPP [28]. p.R152H is believed to be a TNAP polymorphism because this alteration was detected in 3 of 168 alleles (frequency of 1.8%) in subjects from a control group with metabolic bone diseases other than HPP, including osteogenesis imperfecta [29]. It is notable that p.R152H would be a conservative missense mutation

(also termed a synonymous mutation) in terms of properties of arginine and histidine, while p.R152C would be a non-conservative missense mutation. Notably, studies have indicated that some out ALPL polymorphisms, as well as compound heterozygous mutations, may play an important role in HPP severity when associated with additional ALPL mutations [15], [21] and [29]. The second alteration identified in the probands was a heterozygous gene deletion of three base pair in-frame (AAC) at positions 1318–1320-nt (c.1318_1320delAAC), leading to deletion of asparagine (Asn, N) at codon 440 (p.N440del). While the missense mutation described above was maternally inherited, the p.N440del was of paternal origin (Fig. 1). The genetic alteration 1318_1320delAAC (p.N440del) has not been reported previously for odonto-HPP or other HPP types. Clinical dental abnormalities and low serum ALP activity in the father, in addition to the shared p.N440del, strongly suggests a genotype–phenotype correlation between p.

RS, such as high-amylose starch (RS2), is a prebiotic. The metabolic products, especially short-chain fatty acids (SCFA), have emerged as important metabolic fuels for colonocytes, as well as having specific actions that promote normal colonic function (Topping et al., 2003). In general, literature has reported various detrimental effects on dough handling and bread quality

associated with flour replacement by dietary fibre (Angioloni & Collar, 2008), such as WB and RS. Locust bean gum (LBG) is a hydrocolloid that has demonstrated good results for increasing the technological Ku0059436 quality of baked goods (Sharadanant & Khan, 2003a, 2003b), and it could be useful in breads with added WB and RS. Moreover, LBG is also considered a dietary fibre, among substances that encompass health benefits and significantly reduce the risk of

many human disorders (Redgwell & Fischer, 2005). In our previous work (Almeida, Chang, & Steel, 2010), we studied the effect of the addition of these dietary fibres on the farinographic properties of wheat flour. It was verified that the fibres studied altered the main farinographic parameters drastically, suggesting that the incorporation of these fibres in breadmaking processes leads to various consequences to the dough forming stage (mixing) which must be considered for the adjustment of process parameters. These results suggested that there are also changes in other process parameters and in bread quality characteristics. Thus, the objective of this work NU7441 clinical trial was to evaluate the influence of the addition of dietary fibre sources on various breadmaking process parameters and pan bread quality characteristics through the Response Surface Methodology. The material used was kindly donated by suppliers. The wheat flour used was wheat flour for breadmaking Letizia® (Cargill Agrícola S.A., Tatuí, Brazil). It present moisture, proteins (N × 5.7), lipids and ash contents of 10.22 ± 0.08 g/100 g, 11.86 ± 0.13 g/100 g, 1.08 ± 0.02 g/100 g and 0.55 ± 0.04 g/100 g, respectively. Its wet gluten, dry gluten and gluten 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl index were 30.90 ± 0.42 g/100 g, 10.25 ± 0.21 g/100 g

and 75.67 ± 9.03 g/100 g, respectively, and its Falling Number was 358 ± 6 s. The sources of dietary fibre used were: wheat bran (WB) – toasted coarse wheat fibre (Bonali Alimentos Ltda., Cruzeiro, Brazil), granular RS2-type corn resistant starch (RS) – Hi-Maize® 260 (National Starch and Chemical Industrial Ltda., São Paulo, Brazil) and locust bean gum (LBG) – Grindsted® LBG 147 (Danisco Brazil Ltda., Cotia, Brazil). Characterization of the dietary fibre sources used can be found in Almeida et al. (2010). Dietary fibre contents were 47.22%, 37.98% and 82.14%; water absorption index (WAI) was 6.33, 2.32 and 13.69; and water solubility index (WSI) was 12.20%, 0.98% and 0%, for WB, RS and LBG, respectively. The formulation used in this work was: wheat flour (100 g), instant baker’s yeast (1.7 g), salt (1.5 g), sugar (4.

Although many associated words are also conceptually related, as indeed Rajaram and Geraci’s were, associative probability is influenced by non-conceptual factors

such as the probability of co-occurrence in language (e.g., hobby-HORSE, grand-PIANO), and in semantic priming studies, association tends to dominate over conceptual relatedness ( Lucas, 2000). In a recent study (Taylor and Henson, in press), we used semantically related primes (that share semantic attributes, e.g., piano-GUITAR) that were not associatively related, in an attempt to isolate the effect of conceptual fluency on recognition memory judgments. When we included these so-called conceptual primes with the standard repetition primes used in most previous studies (with different blocks for each prime-type), we found that they produced the opposite effect: i.e., Conceptual primes increased the likelihood of selleck screening library (correct) R but not K judgments.1 This occurred simultaneously with the standard increase in K but not R judgments following repetition primes, producing a reliable cross-over interaction between prime-type and R/K judgment. While this cross-over interaction might be used to support at least two distinct contributions to recognition memory, such as recollection and familiarity,

the interpretation PLX3397 cell line of the increased R judgments following conceptual primes would appear more difficult to reconcile with conventional theories of recollection. Sorafenib Indeed, as noted above, one popular theory of recollection and familiarity associates conceptual fluency with familiarity, not recollection (Yonelinas, 2002). One possibility is that conceptual primes automatically activate concepts that are semantically related to both the prime and target (test item), consistent with behavioral evidence for subliminal semantic priming (Van den Bussche et al., 2009). If some of these concepts were also generated spontaneously at Study (particularly if the encoding task entails semantic elaboration), then their unconscious activation at Test may

increase the probability of retrieving them in response to the test cue (i.e., increase retrieval of internal source; the type of source that is likely to dominate R judgments in experiments like these that use word lists, where there is little variability in external source information). In support of this hypothesis, the increase in R judgments following conceptual primes occurred only for studied items (Hits), not unstudied items (False Alarms), unlike the typical pattern for repetition primes (that increase both Hits and False Alarms, given a K judgment) – see Taylor and Henson (in press) for further discussion. However, another possibility is that this interaction pattern is an artifact of the standard R/K procedure, in that participants are forced to give either an R judgment or a K judgment (i.e., the response categories are mutually exclusive).