1988) and does not stain tissue from the brains of parvalbumin knockout mice (Schwaller et al. 1999). Additional control experiments for use of both antibodies in macaque tissue are described under Antibody controls below. Immunocytochemistry A 1-in-24 series (1.2 mm between processed sections) with a random starting well was taken from the set of all tissue sections cut for each animal. The set from which tissue

was drawn covered the region of brain between the lunate sulcus and the see more anterior tip of the intraparietal sulcus. This resulted in at least one (usually two) tissue sections being processed per animal that contained both area MT and area V1 and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical a third (more anterior) section that contained MT only. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical All sections in the 1-in-24 series were processed, but data were collected from these two or three MT-containing sections. Tissue sections were pre-incubated in a blocking buffer comprising 1% IgG-free bovine serum albumin (BSA; Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, PA), 0.05% sodium azide (Sigma, St. Louis,

MO), 0.5% Triton X-100 (Sigma), and 5% normal donkey serum (Jackson ImmunoResearch) in PBS for 60 min before being transferred into fresh blocking buffer with primary antibodies added. Free-floating sections were usually exposed to antibodies directed against PV (1:1000) and m1 AChRs (1:1000) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical in a single co-incubation step. In a single processing batch, the antibodies were applied in separate incubation steps. Results did not differ depending on whether co-incubation or separate incubations were used and the data were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical combined. The tissue remained in the antibody solution for 24–72 h on a shaker at room temperature. After rinsing thoroughly with PBS, the tissue was transferred into diluted secondary antibodies (1:200 in PBS with 1% BSA). Both secondary antibodies were raised

in donkey. PV-immunoreactive sites were visualized using the DyLight 488 nm fluorophore (DyLight 488 donkey anti-mouse Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical IgG; Jackson ImmunoResearch, cat# 715-486-150, lot # 95844). m1 AChR-immunoreactive sites were visualized using the DyLight 594 nm fluorophore (DyLight 594 donkey anti-rabbit IgG; Jackson ImmunoResearch, cat# 711-516-152, lot # 97356). This second incubation proceeded Phosphoprotein phosphatase in the dark, on a shaker at room temperature, for 4–6 h. The sections were rinsed in PBS, mounted, and dried overnight in the dark. They then underwent dehydration through a graded series of alcohols (50–100%), followed by 2 × 100% xylene, and were coverslipped with DPX mounting medium (Electron Microscopy Services). Slides were stored at room temperature in light-protective boxes. Antibody controls Primary antibodies Antibodies directed against the epitope we used to localize m1 AChRs label a single band at ~78 kD in Western blots of homogenate from macaque V1 (Disney et al. 2006).

This suggests that insula dysfunction may be circumscribed to negative valence in anxiety

disorders. Decision making As mentioned, the insula is thought to signal potential changes in interoceptive state, and we propose that during conflict or decision making, the insula may be involved in predicting such changes to potential decisional outcomes. Animal and human studies of insula lesions have reported alterations in approach-avoidance behavior during effort-based and risk-related decisionmaking tasks.150-153 Similarly, human neuroimaging studies and a recent meta-analysis implicate the anterior insula for BEZ235 paradigms involving risk and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical uncertainty.29,154,155 An individual’s predictions regarding interoceptive or emotional responses undoubtedly relate Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to his or her beliefs -

developed through past experience or instructional/observational learning. There is some evidence that the insula plays a role in integrating information concerning current bodily state with cognitive information to make change predictions.156 A recent neuromaging study utilized a paradigm similar to animal models Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of approach-avoidance conflict, which involved various levels of monetary reward associated with differing probabilities of shock. This study found that connectivity between insula and orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) was related to individual variability in decision making during trials involving both reward and punishment.157 It is possible that insula-OFC connectivity is important for integrating individuals’ Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical preconceived beliefs about rewarding and punishing stimuli with information provided during the task to determine behavioral

responses. In summary, the insula is thought to play an integral role in monitoring and predicting interoceptive state, particularly in response to affective stimuli.124,158,159 Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Insula dys function has been identified in anxiety disorders – primarily during processing of negative emotional stimuli. The insula, particularly in its connections with the OFC, is proposed to also play a role in integrating beliefs with the current PDK4 bodily state in order to make change predictions related to various choices.156,157 This could be one way in which the brain estimates risk and influences decision making.29 We propose that insula dysfunction in anxiety disorders could relate to imbalances in difference calculations regarding current and future interoceptive state, which could influence risk estimations and approach-avoidance decision making. Striatum Avoidance and approach processing The epicenter of dopaminergic neurons, the ventral striatum (including the nucleus accumbens), has been identified as important for signaling rewarding or reinforcing properties of stimuli.

GWAS, genome-wide association studies; NHS, Nurses’ Health Study. Figure 3 Manhattan plot of the GWAS meta-analysis in four NHS substudies (N = 6989). GWAS, genome-wide association

studies; NHS, Nurses’ Health Study. NHS-GWAS-PS analyses The genome-wide PS similarly explained a small fraction of variance in the long-term average depression score (Table 3). Using the most liberal threshold of P < 0.5 to select SNPs in the training set, the genome-wide PS was associated with the depression score in the testing set (P = 0.004), Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical but explained only 0.1% of the variance. The maximum percentage of variance explained was achieved with slightly more conservative P-value thresholds for SNP selection (at P < 0.3), in which the genome-wide PS explained 0.2% of the variance (P = 0.003). When restricted to nonoverlapping Ptraining threshold Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical ranges, the SNPs with the most significant association were those with Ptraining

between 0.1 and 0.2; this group alone comprised nearly 9900 SNPs, but explained 0.1% of buy 17-DMAG phenotype variation (Table 3). Table 3 Meta-analysis of percentage Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of variance explained in depression phenotype in NHS by the genome-wide agnostic polygenic scores in the leave-one-substudy-out analysis (N = 6989). GAIN-MDD-PS and PGC-MDD-PS analyses Regardless of the P-value threshold chosen, the GAIN-MDD-PS was not significantly associated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with either the continuous or dichotomized depression phenotype in

the NHS sample (Table 4). The maximal proportion explained by genome-wide PS comparing women at the extremes of the phenotype was higher than that in the full sample (0.4% vs. 0.1%); however, it was not statistically significant, likely due to the reduction in sample size when using only individuals with extreme values of the phenotype (n = 2920) (data not shown). Table 4 Meta-analysis of percentage of variance explained in depression phenotype in NHS by the genetic risk scores using external GAIN-MDD sample as the training set (N = 6989). When applying the agnostic PS Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical from a nine-study meta-analysis of PGC-MDD, the genome-wide risk scores derived from SNPs with less stringent Ptraining threshold were significantly associated with the continuous long-term depressive score, but they only explained at most 0.1% of variance in phenotype. The Nagelkerke’s R2 was also at most 0.1% when the depression phenotype was modeled dichotomously without most the statistical significance (Table 5). Table 5 Meta-analysis of percentage of variance explained in depression symptoms in NHS by the genetic risk scores using external PGC-MDD sample as the training set (N = 6989). Candidate-PS analyses Three individual SNPs (rs36011, rs1417584, and rs6917735) showed nominally significant associations at α threshold of 0.05, but none remained significant after Bonferroni correction.

Adverse effects included mild, transient sedation, increased appetite, and weight gain. The adverse effect of weight gain from risperidone was assessed in a double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study of 19 individuals with autism and MR, aged 6 to 65 years (mean age, 21 years).80 Mean weight gain in children was 8.2 kg, in adolescents was 8.4 kg, and in adults was 5.4 kg. Diminished weight gain occurred when the drug was Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Trametinib cell line tapered and discontinued. Changes in serum leptin levels have not reliably predicted risperidoneassociated weight gain in children and adolescents.81 Olanzapine Olanzapine is moderately

efficacious in children with ASDs and has demonstrated some effectiveness in adults, but the adverse effects of increased appetite, weight gain, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and sedation are common. A case series examining two children with ASDs, aged 8 and 11 years, and five adults, aged 20 to 52 years, revealed response in 6 of the 7 subjects after long-term treatment with olanzapine (52 weeks).82 Notably, most subjects

had a comorbid psychiatric and/or neurodevelopmental disorder, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical making it difficult to meaningfully generalize the results. Two open-label studies in children with ASDs with ages ranging from 6 to 17 years revealed improvements in irritability, lethargy, stereotyped behavior, hyperactivity, and inappropriate or excessive speech.83,84 Another open-label study in eight individuals with ASDs, aged 5 to 42 years, revealed a 75% response rate with significant improvements in motor restlessness Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or hyperactivity, social relatedness, affectual reactions, sensory responses, language usage, SIB, aggression, irritability or anger, anxiety, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and depression, but no changes in repetitive behaviors.85 Open-label olanzapine was given to 10 males with Asperger’s disorder, aged 10 to 15 years, with significant differences observed between baseline and completion scores of internalizing and

externalizing behaviors on the Child Behavior Checklist, and a 90% response rate.86 In the only double-blind, placebo-controlled study of olanzapine in children and young adolescents with ASDs, 50% were considered clinical responders, although there were no significant Bumetanide changes in the measures of repetitive behaviors or aggression.87 In the above studies, dosages ranged from 2.5 to 20 mg/day and the most common adverse effects were weight gain, increased appetite, and loss of strength. Subjects in the case series received concurrent dietary management and/or behavioral intervention, which likely contributed to the weight stability in these participants. Quetiapine Quetiapine has been minimally effective in individuals with ASDs, with adverse effects of weight gain and sedation limiting its use in many subjects. There are no published controlled trials.

Studies indicate that additional onco/suppressor genes may

reside at 11q distal to the MEN1 gene and may play a role in the pathogenesis of PETs (10). Sporadic endocrine pancreatic tumors: molecular genetics and pathobiology genome-wide analyses by comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) indicate that the chromosomal losses occur slightly more frequently than gains, whereas amplifications are uncommon. Losses of chromosome 1 and 11q as well as gains of 9q appear to be early events in the development of pancreatic tumors (10,11). These findings point towards a tumor suppressor pathway and chromosomal instability as important mechanisms associated with malignancy in pancreatic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical endocrine tumors. Gains of chromosome 4 and losses Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of 6q were observed in about 50% of functioning tumors, the majority being insulinomas, with a size less than 2 cm (12). Recent studies using genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)

analysis showed that about 30-40% of pancreatic endocrine tumors had high genetic imbalances defined by chromosomal aberrations (13,14). Homozygous deletion or hypermethylation of p16/MTS1 or a deletion of the p16INK4a tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 9p21 was Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical demonstrated in sporadic gastrinomas, but not in insulinomas. Both benign and malignant insulinomas demonstrated high LOH rates for markers on chromosome 22q (93%) (15). Cyclin D1 overexpression was observed by both immunohistochemistry and northern blot analysis in 43% of PETs (16). High-grade PETs share a large fraction of gene abnormalities

with conventional cancers, the most frequent abnormality being in the cell-cycle key regulatory gene TP53. In summary, the data suggest that Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical multiple genetic defects may accumulate and result in PETs progression and malignancy. Molecular genetic tests are relevant to the pathogenesis, however, these tests are currently not useful in the diagnostic process Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (15). The epigenetic modifications and differential microRNA-expression mechanistically involved below in the dysregulated signaling pathways of PETs are under further investigation (17,18). Classification and grading of PETs The classification of PETs has been controversial, and prognosis is difficult to predict, but important features include metastasis and invasion of adjacent structures (3,19). In the past, two grading schemes have been accepted for pancreatic endocrine tumors (WHO and MSKS), each places a given tumor into categories depending on well-defined histological features: size, lymphovascular invasion, mitotic counts, Ki-67 labelling index, invasion of adjacent organs, presence of INCB28060 molecular weight metastases and whether the tumor produces hormones (5). Whichever system is chosen, it is clear that almost all of these tumors have the potential to metastasize, even after many years.

A thorough history and physical exam remains a critical step in thyroid nodule evaluation. Symptoms of thyrotoxicosis or hypothyroidism, local compressive symptoms, voice changes, and/or the presence of dysphagia should be elicited. In addition, patients should be questioned regarding a personal history of head or neck irradiation, or a family history of either thyroid cancer or other familial syndromes, as there are several known to be GDC-0994 order Associated Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with an increased risk for thyroid cancer (Table

1).5,6 Table 1. Familial Syndromes Associated With Thyroid Cancer.5,6 On exam, it is important to note both the character and size of the nodule in question, whether the nodule is fixed or mobile, as well as to assess

for the presence of neck tenderness, tracheal deviation, or potentially concerning cervical lymphadenopathy. All patients with dysphonia or prior history of cervical or thoracic operations with concern for recurrent laryngeal nerve injury Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical should be evaluated with direct laryngoscopy to assess vocal cord function and for preoperative planning. An ultrasound (US) of the neck should be obtained in order to evaluate the nodule in question and the remainder of the gland for synchronous findings. Concerning features Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical on US include nodules that are hypoechoic, have increased vascularity, contain calcifications, or have irregular shape (classically taller than wide) and borders, or evidence of extra-thyroidal extension or invasion of surrounding structures. The remainder of the neck (bilateral central

and lateral compartments) should be assessed to evaluate for the presence of abnormal lymph nodes.2 Modeled Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical after the Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BIRADS), developed by the American College of Radiology, the Thyroid Imaging Reporting and Data System (TIRADS) was designed in order better to standardize the classification of thyroid lesions and allow for enhanced Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical communication among treating physicians in co-ordinating clinical management. The TIRADS scale ranges from 1 to 6, a score of 1 representing a normal thyroid gland, a 2 signifying a benign condition with no risk of malignancy, 3 being Non-specific serine/threonine protein kinase used for nodules that are likely benign, with a corresponding risk of malignancy of less than 5%, 4 denoting a suspicious nodule, with malignancy risk ranging from 5% to 80%, 5 being used to describe a nodule that is likely malignant, with a greater than 80% estimated likelihood, and, similarly to the BIRADS scale, a 6 signifying known malignancy, proven by prior biopsy. In a prospective study of nearly 2,000 lesions, the TIRADS scale was found to have a sensitivity and specificity of 88% and 49%, respectively. In addition, they found a positive predicative value of 49%, negative predictive value of 88%, and accuracy of 94%.

8). The generalizability of these results is unclear given the small sample size, the higher than expected mortality rate in the standard care group, and differences in PPCM characteristics in patients in Africa as compared to those elsewhere. Further studies aimed at clearly establishing the efficacy and safety of bromocriptine are needed before it can be recommended for the treatment of PPCM. Pentoxifylline: In a single center study involving 59 patients

with PPCM, Sliwa et al. sought to evaluate the effects of pentoxifylline, a drug known to inhibit the production of TNF-α, on clinical status, LV function, and Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical circulating plasma levels of TNF-α.16 One group was treated with diuretics, digoxin, enalapril, and carvedilol, and the other group received pentoxifylline 400

mg three times daily in addition to the previous therapy. Treatment with pentoxifylline was an independent predictor of favorable outcome with better LVEF, NYHA class, and survival. The ITF2357 ic50 promising role of pentoxifylline Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical remains experimental until it is validated by a larger scale, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial.16 Advanced Care and Device Therapy Decisions about both the necessity and timing of CRT or ICD implantation in PPCM patients are extremely difficult and require careful consideration of the risks and benefits Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and the natural history of PPCM. However, if a patient has persistently Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical depressed LV dysfunction 6 months following presentation despite optimal medical therapy, implantation of an ICD is advised. CRT should be considered if the patient

has NYHA class III or IV symptoms and a QRS >120 msec. For patients who are dependent on inotropes or intra-aortic balloon pump despite optimal medical therapy, implantation of a mechanical assist device or cardiac transplantation may be considered.22, 38 Prognosis Factors associated with favorable prognosis include small LV diastolic dimension (<5.5–6.0 cm) and elevated systolic function (LVEF >30–35% and fractional shortening Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical >20%) at the time of diagnosis,39, 40 absence of troponin elevation,41 absence of LV thrombus,29 and Oxymatrine non-African American ethnicity.42 Recent multivariate analysis by Goland et al. in 187 patients with PPCM found LVEF <30% and LV end-diastolic dimension <55 mm to be significantly related to LV recovery, suggesting a relationship between the degree of initial myocardial insult and recovery.42 These parameters, however, have limited sensitivity in predicting recovery in individual patients. Despite the strong association between LVEF at time of diagnosis and rate of recovery, 70% of patients in group I (LVEF 10–19%) and 87% of patients in group II (LVEF 20–29%) recovered almost beyond the “device threshold” at ≥6 months.

8 ± 7.5). All procedures were in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Ethics Committee of the National Institute for Physiological Sciences, Okazaki, Japan. All subjects gave their written consent prior to participation. Two experiments Experiments were conducted in a dimly lit, magnetically shielded room. The subjects were seated with their head firmly fixed using a whole-head neuromagnetometer. Experiments consisted of two parts; recording of MRCFs during Pacritinib chemical structure finger movements of the right hand,

and recording of the somatosensory evoked magnetic fields Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical (SEFs) following median nerve stimulation of the same side. The two experiments were conducted in this order on the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical same day. MRCF experiment Movement For movement experiments, the forearm was placed comfortably on a table, with the elbow joint flexed 70°. The forearm was pronated to bring the hand into a palm-down position, with all fingers and the thumb flexed naturally. The subjects performed voluntary, impulsive extension with the right index finger at the metacarpophalangeal (MP) joint, followed by immediate return of the finger to the initial resting position. A small plastic plate (1 cm height, 2.0 cm long, 0.3 mm thick)

fixed vertically to the tip end Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of the index finger was placed into a vertical trench (0.6 mm width, 5 cm long in vertical). Cut ends of optical fibers were placed at the same height on both sides of the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical inner walls of the trench to face each other, such that the light signal was transmittable in open space. When the finger was resting, the plastic plate occluded the switch circuit. Once the finger extended (or moved upward), light was transmitted to switch on the circuit and generate a square pulse, which was used as a trigger signal of averaging in the off-line analyses. The other pair of optical fibers Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was placed at a height comparable to the fully extended position of the finger, and the corresponding switch circuit generated a trigger pulse when the finger plate occluded the light transmission between these optical fibers. When the index finger was fully extended (0°), therefore, the subject could

see the light projected on the plate as a small dot (diameter 5 mm). Adenylyl cyclase The subjects were asked to generate an impulsive force to extend their index finger by an amount sufficient to project the light dot on the center of finger plate, and then immediately relax their finger or hand muscles without activation of antagonist muscles. We encouraged the subjects to move the finger in a self-paced manner with an intertrial interval longer than 5 sec. The subjects were asked to keep their gaze on the vertical trench and to minimize the number of blinks and saccadic eye movements across the recording period. To prevent movement overshoot or undershoot, the subjects were allowed a number of practice trials. The recording period was 20 min, in which two rest periods of 1 minute were inserted among three 6-min trial sessions.

HH) showed a trend toward greater aggression reactivity scores in women who were homozygous for the H allele compared with those with one or two L alleles (F(1, 328) = 3.40, P = 0.07, partial η2 = 0.010). Such effects were not observed on the other primary outcome measures. Analyses of the secondary outcome measures showed a significant difference between genotypes on the RAV reactivity subscale (F(1, 326) = 3.20; P = 0.04, partial η2 = 0.01), although the post

hoc group comparisons were Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical not significant. No other effects of genotype were found. Interaction effects No interaction effects were found. Discussion The aim of this study was to investigate the role of the MAOA gene and its interaction with childhood trauma and sex on measures of trait and state-dependent aggression-related behaviors in a healthy young adult sample. We found that women with the MAOA-HH genotype scored higher on some measures of aggression compared with MAOA-LL women. Specifically, MAOA-HH women reported more aggressive thoughts and behavior in relation to sad mood (LEIDS-R AGG scale) compared Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with MAOA-LL women. Such effects on the LEIDS-R AGG scale did not occur in men, nor did we see any effects on more general trait and state measures of aggressive

behaviors such as the STAXI. This discrepancy between the results on the LEIDS-R and the STAXI may be explained by the fact that the STAXI contains two separate scales Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for state and for trait, whereas the LEIDS-R measures aggression in the

www.selleckchem.com/products/fg-4592.html context of dysphoria. The notion that the effects of MAOA genotype may be context dependent is consistent with an experimental study in healthy Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical males (McDermott et al. 2009). Using an aggression provocation task, it was found that the impact of the MAOA-L variant on aggressive behavior in males was largest in the context of aggression provocation (McDermott et al. 2009). The presently found sex-specific effects and their direction are in line with Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Sjöberg et al. (2007), who reported more criminal behavior in MAOA-HH adolescent girls with higher psychosocial risk compared with adolescent girls without this risk. Our study is a first in showing an association between ADAMTS5 the high-expression MAOA variant and aggression-related behaviors in adult women. Sjöberg et al. found only effects in girls with higher levels of psychosocial adversity, whereas in our sample, the effects were irrespective of childhood trauma history. Differences in the type of childhood trauma measured (Sjöberg: multifamily housing and sexual abuse; current study: emotional and physical neglect and abuse, sexual abuse) may account for the discrepancies in findings between the studies. We also found sex-specific effects of the MAOA-H variant on total LEIDS-R score, RAV and RUM. RUM is known to predict higher levels of depressive symptoms, recurrence of depressive episodes, as well as chronicity (Nolen-Hoeksema 1991; Robinson and Alloy 2003). Antypa et al.

Data was summarized in form of proportions and frequent tables for categorical variables. Continuous variables were summarized using means, median, mode and standard deviation. p-values were computed for categorical variables using Chi-square (χ2) test and Fisher’s exact test depending on the size of the data set. Independent student t-test was used for continuous variables. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to determine predictor variables that

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical are associated with SSR128129E research buy outcome. A p-value of less than 0.05 was considered to constitute a statistically significant difference. Ethical considerations The study was carried out after the approval by the department of surgery and BMC/CUHAS-Bugando ethics review board. An informed written consent was sought from patients/relatives who were recruited prospectively. Results During the period of study, a total of 114 patients Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical presented to our centre with cut throat injuries. Out of these, 16 patients were excluded from the study due to failure to meet the inclusion criteria and

incomplete data. Thus, 98 patients were enrolled Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical into the study. Of these, 12 (12.2%) patients were studied retrospectively and the remaining 86(87.8%) patients were studied prospectively. There were 69 (70.4%) males and 29 (29.6%) females with a male to female ratio of 2.4: 1. The age of victims ranged from 8 to 78 years with a median age of 26 years. The peak age incidence was in the age group of 21-30 years and accounted for 43.9% of cases (Figure 1). Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The vast majority of patients, 74 (75.5%) had primary or no formal education and most of them (78, 79.6%) had no employment. Sixty-four (65.3%) patients came from rural areas around Mwanza City. The majority of patients, 92 (93.9%) were belong to the low socioeconomic class and only 6 (6.1%) victims were from higher classes. Only seven (7.1%) of the victims had definable source of private Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or governmental health care insurance at the time of their injury. Figure 1 Distribution of age

group according to sex. Regarding the causes and motivating factors for cut throat injury, fifty-four (55.1%) patients were due to homicidal injury, 34(34.7%) victims were due to suicidal attempt and only 10(10.2%) person were due to accidental injury. Digestive enzyme Interpersonal conflict ( 24.4%) was the most common motivating factor for homicidal injury whereas psychiatric illness (16.2%) and road traffic accidents (9.2%) were the most frequent motivating factors of suicidal attempt and accidental injuries respectively (Table 1). Associated medical co-morbidities were reported in 22 (22.4%) patients. these included; psychiatric illness in 16 (72.7%) patients and diabetes mellitus, hypertension and chronic chest infection in two (9.1%) patients each respectively. Table 1 Distribution of patients according to the cause and motivating factors of cut throat injury (N=98) The majority of injuries were in Zone II accounting for 65.3% of cases and most of them had laryngeal (57.