This pattern of diminishing effect size estimates over time, termed “the winner’s curse,” is common in genetics studies and can ultimately- result in rejection of the initial finding as a false positive.55 It is notable that this phenomenon was observed in the context of 13 published studies DRD3 Ser9Gly. Moreover, a very selleck chem recent study in the large CATIE cohort (n=207 cases with TD vs 503 cases without TD), which was not included in any meta-analysis, demonstrated essentially no effects Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of either DRD3 Ser9Gly or DRD2 Taq1A.56 Therefore, caution is warranted in the interpretation of other relationships reported across much smaller study sets. A

third dopamine-related gene that has been investigated in multiple pharmacogenetic studies of TD is Catechol Omethyltransferase (COMT). While subcortical dopamine activity is primarily terminated by reuptake mediated by the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical dopamine transporter, a secondary mechanism for dopamine MLN8237 clearance is metabolic degradation via COMT.57 Additionally, COMT is the predominant mechanism of dopamine clearance in frontal cortex. The COMT

gene contains a functional polymorphism that codes for a substitution of methionine (met) for valine (val) at codon 158. The met allele, which has 36% to 48% allele frequency across various ethnicities, results in a thermolabile protein that has one fourth Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the enzymatic activity of the val carrying protein.58 (In Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical other words, the val allele results in reduced synaptic dopamine due to more rapid clearance). Across five studies meta-analyzed by Bakker and colleagues,39 the val allele was associated with modestly increased risk for TD (OR=1.19; Table I). It is unknown whether the protective effect of the met allele is a direct result of subcortical

COMT activity, or is secondary Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to alterations (eg, upregulation) in frontostriatal circuitry. In addition to dopamine antagonism, one of the common features of many antipsychotics is near-saturation binding of serotonin (5-HT)2 receptors, which has been confirmed in vivo using PET imaging.59,60 While 5-HT binding is often considered a hallmark of SGAs, it is important to note that serotonergic binding properties are observed for several FGAs as well.61,62 The 5-HT2A receptor gene (HTR2A) has been examined in several Carfilzomib pharmacogenetic studies of TD; in particular, a promoter region SNP (rs6313), which has been previously- associated with response to antipsychotics (as well as antidepressants), has been extensively studied in relation to TD. While these studies generally converge to indicate a modestly reduced effect of the C allele on symptom response,63 this same allele has been associated with significantly increased risk for tardive dyskinesia.43 As shown in Table I, a recent meta-analysis reported an odds ratio of about 1.