The importance of an animal reservoir in high-endemic regions remains unresolved. High prevalence of anti-HEV antibodies in several animal species and isolation of HEV genomic sequences from pigs support its existence. However, whereas HEV isolates from sporadic human cases and

animals in China and Vietnam have both belonged to genotype 4, in India, these have belonged to genotypes 1 and 4, respectively (Fig. 1).46, 47 Furthermore, genotype 1 HEV, which is responsible for the majority of cases in hyperendemic countries, has not been isolated from pigs and has failed to infect pigs in experimental studies.48 Thus, zoonotic transmission appears unlikely for the widely prevalent genotype KPT-330 clinical trial 1 HEV infections in high-endemic areas. Anti-HEV IgG antibodies represent a marker of previous exposure to HEV. However, wide variations in sensitivity and specificity rates of various anti-HEV IgG assays makes the interpretation of seroepidemiological studies of HEV infection difficult. Furthermore, the duration of persistence of these antibodies remains uncertain. In one study, nearly half of those who PLX-4720 mw had been affected during a hepatitis E outbreak had detectable anti-HEV 14 years later.21 However, in another

study, IgG anti-HEV levels had declined significantly within 14 months.49 Prevalence rates for anti-HEV antibodies are generally higher in areas where clinical hepatitis E is common. However, somewhat inexplicably, age-specific seroprevalence rates of anti-HEV are much lower than those for anti-HAV in several high-endemicity countries.50 Aldol condensation In contrast, in Egypt, anti-HEV prevalence rates among adults exceed 70%, though disease outbreaks do not occur.51 These findings are not explained by variations in performance of various anti-HEV assays. In developed countries, anti-HEV antibody prevalence rates vary from 1% to above

20%.35, 52 These appear too high, given that hepatitis E disease is infrequent in these areas, and may reflect exposure to infected animals, previous subclinical HEV infection, serologic cross-reactivity with other agents, and/or false-positive serologic tests. In particular, in a study of nearly 18,000 sera collected during the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III) in the United States, the IgG anti-HEV seropositivity rate was 21%,53 in marked contrast to the infrequency of symptomatic hepatitis E in the United States. Quite significantly, seropositivity was associated with history of eating liver or organ meat more than once per month, suggesting a role for foodborne zoonotic transmission. Other risk factors included male gender, non-Hispanic white ethnicity, residence in certain geographical parts, and having a pet at home.