However, while the stress-induced shrinkage of apical dendrites also occurred in middle-aged and aged rats, the neurons failed to recover with rest in both groups (Bloss et al., 2010), demonstrating a loss of neuronal resilience

that is apparent by middle age (i.e., 12 months old) (see Figure 3A). Spines were also investigated on the same neurons analyzed for dendritic arbor measurements (see Figure 3B). We were particularly interested in whether or not the same spine class(es) were vulnerable to both age and stress. In young animals, as previously reported, stress led to a loss of spines on distal dendrites, with a partial GW-572016 nmr recovery of spines following rest (Bloss et al., 2011). Spine measurements determined that the spine class most vulnerable to stress was the thin spines (see Figure 3B), the same spine class shown to be vulnerable to aging in PFC of NHPs. However, there was no effect of stress or rest on spine density or size in middle aged or aged animals, i.e., the experience-dependent plasticity apparent in young animals was lost with age. Analyses of the control animals provided the insight required to understand the failure of behaviorally induced plasticity in the middle-aged and aged animals. Middle-aged and aged rats lose 30% of their spines in the absence of

stress, and this loss is driven primarily by the loss of thin spines, particularly in the aged rats. Taken together, these studies provide evidence that mPFC pyramidal neurons from aged rats suffer losses of plasticity at multiple levels: first, neurons from aging animals lose a certain population of thin spines Crizotinib that may be critical for proper functioning within

PFC circuitry; second, the remaining spines are less capable of rewiring in response to experience; and third, neuronal dendrites from aging animals lack recovery-related plasticity mechanisms. Importantly, all three of these age-related changes in plasticity were observed in both middle-aged and aged animals, suggesting that preventative measures against such plasticity deficits may be optimally effective when implemented Casein kinase 1 during middle age. While the “experience” was chronic stress in this case, we suggest that the age-related loss of plasticity reflects a general inability to adapt that would negatively impact cognitive tasks that require a high degree of synaptic flexibility. Circadian disruption has sometimes been overlooked as a separate yet related phenomenon to sleep deprivation, which alters cognitive function, mood, and metabolism (McEwen, 2006). In modern industrialized societies, circadian disruption can be induced in numerous ways, the most common of which are shift work and jet lag. A longitudinal study in a cohort of nurses in night-shift work found that exposure to night work can contribute to weight gain and obesity (Niedhammer et al., 1996).