2008; Bruchas et al. 2009). The increased anxiety elicited by stress (forced swim or i.c.v. CRF) shown in a separate study to be mediated by CRF R1, is reduced by KOR blockade (Bruchas et al. 2009). Consistent with this, CRF-induced

KOR phosphorylation is blocked in several brain regions by pretreatment with a CRF R1 antagonist. There is also a CRF-KOR interaction in the aversive responses elicited by stress, which involves, in contrast, CRF R2 receptors. Place aversion induced by either CRF or a CRF R2 agonist was blocked by a KOR antagonist, but KOR agonist-induced place aversion Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was unaffected by CRF R2 blockade (Land et al. 2008). These data on anxiety and place aversion were interpreted as suggesting that CRF induces DYN release, and the released DYN activates Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical KOR and produces aversion or anxiety. This is consistent with the results of a microdialysis study showing that injection of CRF through an adjacent cannula evokes the release of DYN, but not vice versa in

the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical central amygdala (Lam and Gianoulakis 2011). Our findings of nor-BNI blockade of yohimbine-induced reinstatement are consistent with this proposed mechanism, as yohimbine produces reinstatement through a CRF R1-dependent mechanism. Our results on antalarmin-induced blockade of U50,488-induced reinstatement, however, suggest a different mechanism, with an opposite relationship between the two peptides. These latter data suggest instead that KOR stimulation evokes the release of CRF, which in turn stimulates CRF R to induce reinstatement.

Antalarmin blocks the effects of this released CRF on the CRF Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical R, thereby inhibiting the reinstatement response. A brain region in which this interaction might occur is the amygdala, a critical part of the circuitry involved in responses to stress (Johansen et al. 2011). CRF and DYN is released in these regions by stress (Funk et al. 2003; Smith et al. 2012), and it possesses binding sites Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for CRF R and KOR (Mansour et al. 1987; Weathington and Cooke 2012). These data provide further support for the important role of KOR in reinstatement of alcohol AV-951 seeking under nonstress and stressful conditions. They also indicate an interaction between KOR and CRF in reinstatement of alcohol seeking. Further studies are necessary to elaborate the role of KOR and CRF R in stress-induced alcohol seeking. A key experiment we intend to conduct is to examine the effect of nor-BNI on reinstatement induced by the stressor, i.c.v. CRF. Acknowledgments This study was supported by a grant from the NIAAA (AA13108) to A. D. Lê. We thank Kenner Rice of the Intramural Research Program, NIDA-NIH for the generous gift of antalarmin, U50,488, and nor-BNI. Conflict of Interest None Sorafenib Tosylate order declared.