1997). Finally, there is no indication of infection or related pathologies from surgical biopsy wounds (Weller et al. 1997). Bruce-Allen and Geraci (1985) described

the wound healing process in captive bottlenose dolphins following incisions through the epidermis and into the dermis. Their study demonstrated that cuts are histologically repaired by 7 Lorlatinib order d, but are still visible on dolphins as white linear marks. High rates of cell proliferation enable cetaceans to rapidly heal from wounds they obtain in their natural habitat. For example, bottlenose dolphins with large, open wounds, probably inflicted by sharks, heal substantially within the first month and can be completely healed within 6–7 mo (Corkeron et al. 1987, Lockyer and Morris 1990). The successful healing of these larger traumas in the wild is perhaps one of the strongest arguments to suggest

that the majority of biopsy wounds will heal rapidly and that biopsy sampling will most likely not impact survival (International Whaling Commission 1991). Aguilar and Borrell (1994a) also concluded that the small wound produced by a standard biopsy dart (0.25 cm diameter) should not lead to significant physical trauma in sampled animals. To date, no studies have investigated the stress response in cetaceans targeted by remote biopsy sampling methods. In comparison, a small number of researchers have investigated physiological and behavioral responses in dolphins to assess selleck products stress associated with encirclement by nets and handling, which are required during manual biopsy procedures. St. Aubin et al. (1996) found that bottlenose dolphins had elevated stress hormones (aldosterone and cortisol) following capture and handling, check details while most dolphins in a similar study by Ortiz and Worthy (2000) did not exhibit elevated stress hormone levels. Authors of both studies concluded that the increases in hormone levels were indicative of a mild stress response

only. Another study found that bottlenose dolphin blood cells increase gene expression related to metabolism and stress, which also indicates that dolphins undergo a stress response during capture-release health assessments (Mancia et al. 2008). Finally, Esch and colleagues (2009) showed that signature whistle parameters, which may be potential indicators of stress, changed in bottlenose dolphins during brief capture-release events. However, none of the studies examined the long-term impacts of these short-lived stress responses or how physiological responses change with repeated captures of the same individual. These, as well as examining the stress response in remotely biopsied cetaceans, are important areas of future research, as the cumulative impacts of repeated capture and/or biopsy sampling (by both manual and remote methods) may be substantial.