BTG1, a cell proliferative inhibitory factor, was upregulated, which was confirmed by qPCR analysis (29). DDIT4, the DNA-damage-inducible transcript 4, was reported as m-TOR inhibitor. Overexpression of DDIT4 promotes apoptosis in different types of cancer cells (30). Upregulation of BTG1 and DDIT4 could contribute to PPD’s effect on the cell proliferation and apoptosis in the human CRC. CCNA2, a key regulator of the regular cell cycle progression, is overexpressed in multiple cancer malignancies such as lung, liver, colon, and breast cancers (31),

this website (32) and (33). Any treatment suppressing CCNA2 expression would be beneficial in inhibiting tumor growth. In our study, CCNA2 was decreased in HCT-116 cells when treated with PPD in both microarray screening and real-time PCR arrays. CCNE2 (cyclin E2), a significant overexpression gene in tumor-derived cells, was downregulated by PPD. Cyclin E2 is reported to specifically interact with CIP/KIP family of CDK inhibitors, and plays a role in cell cycle G1/S transition. The expression of cyclin E2 peaks at the G1-S phase and exhibits a pattern of tissue specificity distinct from that of cyclin E1 (34) and (35). find more In addition,

although not involved in top 20 upregulated gene list, CDKN1A (p21) was significantly upregulated by the treatment of PPD, which is consistent with previous reports that PPD analogs increased p21 expression in protein level (36) and (37). The p21 binds to all G1/S cyclin-cdk complexes, in preventing the G1-S transition, leading to G1 arrest and inhibiting cell proliferation (38). Our cell cycle and gene expression assays suggested that the PPD-induced G1 cell cycle checkpoint blockage might result from the regulation of a number of gene clusters such as CDKN1A, CCNE2 and CCNA2. An important issue was pathway activation or suppression. In our gene expression analysis, apoptosis regulation, NF-κB, and m-TOR pathways, were transcriptionally activated when treated with PPD. A number of studies have investigated PDK4 that these pathways are the crucial and essential in tumor initiation and progression (39), (40) and (41).

Among these pathways, the p53 pathway might be pivotal to controlling the human cancer cell response to PPD exposure. Two important members of the TNF family, DR4 and DR5, were significantly upregulated in our assays. Previous studies have shown that the upregulation of DR4 and DR5 sensitized to tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand or TRAIL-induced apoptosis (42) and (43). The relationship between the TRAIL and human malignancies has been shown (44) and (45). Since TRAIL-mediated suppression of inflammation correlates with suppression of tumor development, it has been used as a target of several anticancer therapeutics (46). In particular, the expression of TRAIL receptors DR4 and DR5 are often altered in patients with colon cancer. Activation of DR4 and DR5 selectively induces apoptosis in colon cancer cells (47).